Sustainable Transportation Policy In Malaysia Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate Change, or Global Warming, is one of the most serious environmental menaces of the twenty-first century. Harmonizing to NST article on Top 10 list Global Warming Cause, Carbon dioxide emanations from firing gasolene for transit responsible for approximately 33 % of emanations. With the population turning at an dismaying rate, the demand for more autos and consumer goods means that we are increasing the usage of fossil fuels for transit and fabrication. The jobs of nursery gas emanations and urban air quality are concentrating attending on sustainable conveyance. There are many definitions on sustainable transit. A sustainable conveyance system as defined by The Centre for Sustainable Transportation ( Gilbert and Tanguay, 2000 ) is as follows: Allows the basic entree and development demands of persons, companies and societies to be met safely and in a mode consistent with human and ecosystem, wellness, and promotes equity within and between consecutive coevalss. Is low-cost, operates reasonably and expeditiously, offers pick of conveyance manner, and supports a competitory economic system, every bit good as balanced regional development. Limits emanations and waste within the planet ‘s ability to absorb them, uses renewable resources at or below their rates of coevals, and uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development of renewable replacements while minimising the impact on the usage of land and the coevals of noise. How can transit go more sustainable? Harmonizing to The Center for Sustainable Transportation system it is defined as: With regard to society, transit systems should: Meet basic human demands for wellness, comfort, and convenience in ways that do non emphasize the societal cloth. Allow and support development at a human graduated table, and supply for a sensible pick of conveyance manners, types of lodging and community, and life manners. Produce no more noise than is acceptable by communities. Be safe for people and their belongings. With regard to the economic system, transit systems should: Provide cost-efficient service and capacity. Be financially low-cost in each coevals. Support vibrant, sustainable economic activity. With regard to the environment, transit systems should: Make usage of land in a manner that has little or no impact on the unity of ecosystems. Use meagerly energy beginnings that are basically non renewable or unlimited. Use other resources that are renewable or unlimited, achieved in portion through the reuse of points and the recycling of stuffs used in vehicles and substructure. Produce no more emanations and waste than can be accommodated by the planet ‘s renewing ability. Harmonizing to the Center for Sustainable Transportaion besides, there are several barriers to the attainment of sustainable transit. Four of the most of import are these: More than for most other countries of human enterprise, decision-making about transit by authoritiess, corporations, and persons has become locked into manners that reinforce the present unsustainable agreements and tendencies. There is a mentality that accomplishing sustainable transit is excessively dearly-won, hard, and will endanger our quality of life and life style. Combustion of low-priced oil provides more than 99 per cent of the energy for motorised transit and creates many of the environmental jobs that result from transit. Harnessing renewable options will be a major challenge. Mechanisms for placing betterments in sustainable transit, and circulating ensuing success narratives, and good tendencies are unequal. The attempt towards accomplishing sustainable conveyance includes technological betterments of autos and lorries, fuels and substructure. However, utilizing vehicles more expeditiously ( higher burden factor for lorries, and fewer individual tenancy private vehicles ) would be a good start towards a smarter usage of conveyance. Walking and cycling are the ‘greenest ‘ and most sustainable signifiers of conveyance. However, public conveyance is a cardinal option but it is non having the precedence which it should be. Transport becomes sustainable merely when it does non harm the environment or uses fuel from renewable beginnings such as air current and solar. In footings of human mobility, this means more usage of public conveyance ( including integrated mobility services ) , and non-motorised manners of conveyance like walking and cycling. For motion of goods, rail cargo is more fuel efficient than hauling. The public transit system in Klang Valley includes coachs, commuter Light Rail Transit ( LRT ) , monorail, coachs and taxis. Public conveyance riders are merely every bit inconsiderate as the drivers. Lining up is a practically unknown phenomenon is thwarting and clip consuming 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Whenever a auto is started, sitting idle or driving it is bring forthing emanations that are make fulling our ambiance. These emanations include nitrogen gas ( N2 ) , C dioxide ( CO2 ) , H2O vapor ( H2O ) , C monoxide ( CO ) , hydrocarbons or volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) , and N oxides ( NO and NO2, together called NOx ) . Bryant et al. 2008. Carbon dioxide represents about 80 per centum of the manmade nursery gases blamed for planetary heating. 15 % of the manmade C dioxide ( CO2 ) in the Earth ‘s ambiance comes from autos, trucks, aeroplanes, trains, and ships. The staying 85 % of atmospheric CO2 comes from industry, edifices and agribusiness. Current tendencies show atmospheric CO2 concentration would duplicate by the terminal of the century ( Jan Fuglestvedt 2008 ) Figure 1: Projected concentration degrees presuming go oning â€Å" concern as usual † behavior ( Beginning: University of Maryland ) Harmonizing ESMAP, Traffic congestion can impact human wellness due to pollution with high degrees of particulates, hydrocarbons, lead and NOx. there are three chief beginnings of particulate air pollution: vehicle fumes, re-suspended route dust, and solid fuels, The Federal Highway Administration has documented the degrees of these emanations and how much of each compound is produced by autos ( see Figure 2 ) . Air Pollutant Proportion from On route Motor Vehicles Note Oxides of Nitrogen ( NOx ) 34 % precursor to groundaˆ?level ozone ( smog ) , which amendss the respiratory system and injures workss Volatile Organic Compounds ( VOC ) 34 % precursor to groundaˆ?level ozone ( smog ) , which amendss the respiratory system and injures workss Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 51 % contributes to smog production ; toxicant in high concentrations Particulate Matter ( PM10 ) 10 % does non include dust from paved and unpaved roads, which are the major beginning of particulate affair pollution ( 50 % of the sum ) Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) 33 % thought to be primary subscriber to planetary heating Figure 2: Transportation Air Quality: Selected Facts and Figures 2002. Sterba 2009 Harmonizing to analyze on Hybrid Cars ( Michael et. al 2010 ) , their higher monetary value bends consumers off and makes the vehicles a less attractive economic investing. Energy efficient treating techniques need to be developed before the advanced stuffs in loanblends can assist add to their clean image. Widespread alteration to progress intercrossed engineerings is non a executable option in the close hereafter because of both cost and the limited sum of loanblends on the route today. Overall, loanblend engineering has a batch of possible in the distant hereafter, but as for right now they are non a important betterment over today ‘s internal burning engine. It was recorded that from twelvemonth 2005 to twelvemonth 2009 there were about 42 million vehicles register in Malaysia as shown in Figure 3. Year Car enrollment Public vehicle Commercial Vehicles Entire Year 2005 6,473,261 136500 805157 7,414,918 Year 2006 6,941,996 142038 836579 7,920,613 Year 2007 7,419,643 147050 871234 8,437,927 Year 2008 7,966,525 154524 909243 9,030,292 Year 2009 8,506,080 162309 936222 9,604,611 Entire 37,307,505 742,421 4,358,435 42,408,361 Figure 3: No of vehicles in Malaysia by type To cover with the terrible traffic jobs in Malaysia particularly in Klang Valley the transit contrivers will hold to look to solutions such as utilizing public conveyance and presenting more environmental friendly vehicles. In the 10TH Malaysia Plan, a amount of RM2.8 billion is allocated for bettering urban public transit was chosen as one of six National Key Result Areas ( NKRAs ) , which are priority countries under the Government Transformation Programme. During the 10MP period, connectivity across different manners of public conveyance will be improved through the constitution of multi-modal transportation hubs for services within metropoliss, from suburban countries into metropoliss and for intercity travel. The Strategic Plan is a papers which determines the way of future transit system in Malaysia. Harmonizing to The strategic Plan of The Ministry of Transport ( 2008 – 2015 ) , development of conveyance substructure a seamless, integrated, sustainable and competitory to run into the aspirations states is emphasised. One of the program objective is to guarantee that environmental non contaminated by the land conveyance, air and maritime. TERAS 2 The scheme highlighted is to optimise new engineerings in conveyance by advancing the usage of environmentally friendly vehicles and supplying seamless transit system by bettering the park N drive installations at all Stationss of urban conveyance to run into the aim to beef up and supply world-class incorporate conveyance substructure. Park and Ride ( P & A ; R ) system are known as inducement parking system. This installations system consists of auto Parkss with connexions to public conveyance. The user will utilize public transit to go into metropolis and leave their forces vehicles in a auto park. P & A ; R system are by and large located in suburbs of metropolitan countries or on the outer borders of big metropoliss. Many states had utilizing this system such as United Kingdom, United State, Japan and Singapore. Park and Ride was foremost initiated in the United Kingdom ( UK ) in the sixtiess and seventiess that enjoy most success in metropoliss historic in nature and rather little capacity of commanding that balance to their inhibiting urban construction. In a scope of scenes across the UK, nevertheless, some of which really different in size and nature to the earlier host Centres, Park and Ride has later emerged as a major constituent of local conveyance policies. In Malaysia, the authorities starts utilizing Park and Ride system such as Kuala Lumpur, around Klang Valley and Putrajaya Harmonizing to CASE STUDY ON AWARENESS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF PARK AND RIDE AT PUTRAJAYA, MALAYSIA the consciousness degree for both Putrajaya citizens and visitants is non high plenty to make the mark of the Park and Ride system. This is because, about merely half of the people is utilizing the system while the remainder garbage to utilize the system and make non cognize to us the system. The understanding about the system need to be good explain to the both Putrajaya citizens and besides the visitants. Therefore, the user of Park and Ride may increase and many traffic jobs could cut down. Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Transport ( EST ) provide an illustration of how standards and marks can be linked to important environmental and wellness quality aims. These marks are long-run – specific intermediate marks and mileposts should be set to concentrate action. The quantitative mark degrees below are non normative and could be adapted harmonizing to national, regional or local fortunes. What is indispensable for the EST attack, is that mark degrees are set to accomplish environmental and wellness quality aims. Carbon dioxide Climate alteration is prevented by cut downing C dioxide emanations so that atmospheric concentrations of CO2are stabilised at or below their 1990 degrees. Consequently, entire emanations of CO2 from conveyance should non transcend 20 % to 50 % of such emanations in 1990 depending on specific national conditions. Nox Damage from ambient NO2and ozone degrees and N deposition is greatly reduced by meeting WHO Air Quality Guidelines for human wellness and eco-toxicity. This implies that entire emanations of NOxfrom conveyance should non transcend 10 % of such emanations in 1990. VOCs Damage from carcinogenic VOCs and ozone is greatly reduced by meeting WHO Air Quality Guidelines for human wellness and ecosystem protection. Entire emanations of transport-related VOCs should non transcend 10 % of such emanations in 1990 ( less for highly toxic VOCs ) .2 Particulates Harmful ambient air degrees are avoided by cut downing emanations of all right particulates ( particularly those less than 10 micrometers in diameter ) . Depending on local and regional conditions, this may imply a decrease of 55 % to 99 % of all right particulate ( PM10 ) emanations from conveyance, compared with 1990 degrees. Landuse/Landtake Land usage and substructure for the motion, care, and storage of conveyance vehicles is developed in such a manner that local and regional aims for air, H2O, eco-system and biodiversity protection are met. Compared to 1990 degrees, this will probably imply the Restoration and enlargement of green infinites in built-up countries. Noise Noise from conveyance no longer consequences in out-of-door noise degrees that present a wellness concern or serious nuisance. Depending on local and regional conditions, this may imply a decrease of conveyance noise to no more than a upper limit of 55 dubnium ( A ) during the twenty-four hours and 45 dubnium ( A ) at dark and out-of-doorss. Minister of Transport Malaysia in his address reference that â€Å" The conveyance sector has now entered the new epoch of a more ambitious and requires a high committedness from all sides. It is now requires a manner of conveyance and more incorporate services and quality system. In add-on environmental facets should besides be given accent in the planning of all undertakings for the Ministry of guarantee sustainable development. † ( Message from DATUK ONG TEE KEAT, Minister of Transport Malaysia ) 3.0 METHODOLOGY This is Life Cycle Analysis academic composing which needs a batch of diaries and article readings, cyberspace surfboarding and cognition. Some articles were from Ministry of Transport, 10th Malaysia Plan and Malayan Strategic Planning to guarantee that suggestion proposed relevant to the way of Malaysia development ( Dasar Pembangunan Negara ) . However, more elaborate surveies should be done to acquire thoughts that can lend to accomplishing the ends. 4.0 Discussion What are the holistic attack toward sustainable transit policy in Malaysia? Several schemes can be developed such as:1. Develop of national transit schemeTransportation system webs are an of import piece of the communications substructure of a state. We are wholly dependent on our transit webs to travel goods and people throughout the state. A national transit scheme such as highlighted in The Strategic Plan would assist Malaysia make a sustainable transit policy. More schemes must emphasis on green engineering.2. Enhance national public transit schemeIn order to cut down the figure of private autos on the route, the authorities must be after their short term and long term schemes for public transit. Peoples must be encouraged to take public conveyance for the motion of goods and people. Long term schemes need to be after on how people can travel about in the hereafter by utilizing public conveyance as a precedence and make the finish faster, convenient and comfy. The Malayan authorities has stated a end to hold 40 % of the population utilizing public transit in the hereafter. Unfortunately, at a interim we have limited picks for safe, convenient, dependable public transit. For illustration, we have a really limited train to go from North to South. Road accidents which involved express coach are frequently happen in the state. Therefore, task force group which include expertness from relevant field must be formed. This group will come out with the national public transit schemes and besides to advice the stakeholders on how to accomplish the mission3. National public transit sectionPublic transit should non be run as a profitable concern. It must be look as a pick of transit that people can take. Minimum menu should be charge to the people. More subsidies must be given to this section. Peoples will certainly utilize public conveyance if it is convenient and comfy with the low menu. It is clip for the authorities to upgrade the public transit to the first category installations by turn uping more money in this department.Research and development unit must besides organize in this section. This unit will ever make research on new engineerings to upgrade the transit systems or conveyance which environmental friendly like was done in Seoul as an Earth friendly transit metropolis.4. Expanded national railroad webRailway engineering is still the most efficient manner to travel goods and people. Successful rail webs in Europe, Japan, India, China, Taiwan, and shortly in Argentina, show us that the motion of riders by rail is faster, easier, and better than auto or air travel. Thankss to the English Channel Tunnel and the Eurostar High Speed Train, London and Paris are now two hours apart by train. Trains travel more people, avoid congestion on the roads, usage less energy, and are far more appealing than planes or autos. A state like Malaysia should hold a dependable railroad transit web for cargo every bit good as a fast rider railroad web linking all major metropoliss. High Speed rail connexions between Kuala Lumpur and neighbouring capital metropoliss must be explored. Therefore, the full double-tracking and electrification of all rail lines within Malaysia is necessary. In add-on, ternary trailing and the building of extra rail lines should be considered.5. Regional/local public transit authorizationAs we can see in the urban country, there is a more than one public transit company. for illustration in Klang vale, Rapid KL and XXX are the celebrated coach companies. It is suppose to be merely one authorization which responsible for the planning, ordinance and inadvertence of public transit. This local authorization has the responsibility to command the coach systems so that it operates under an effectual an efficient system. This would extinguish unneeded and uneconomical competition and promote stableness and dependability in public transit. 6. Additional, secure support for regional/local public transit Public transit service is of import substructure. It should non be operated like a concern. There should be no ground why a coach company should even seek to run a sustainable concern. All first public transit services do non do money. They in fact lose money, and their extra costs are borne by a combination of authorities financess, bonds, and extra investings. The best manner to construct stable, dependable public transit substructure is to fund it decently and fund it early on. This means capital investing and regular operations subsidies are necessary. No universe category transit bureau should even be trying to retrieve 50 % o more of their grosss from menus paid by riders. Alternatively, they should be having money from public and private investing. Presently the province authorities of Terengganu is be aftering the debut of Rapid Terengganu, a state-level coach service. While any bus service betterments are good intelligence, this intelligence is even better because it shows that the province authorities is committed to bettering public transit through authorities regulated service. One little point, nevertheless. The name â€Å" Rapid † is overused, and possibly should be limited to large metropoliss merely. A state-level service should hold an appropriate name that reflects the service being offered, non a selling tool. I personally like â€Å" Bas Negeri Terengganu † and I think the acronym â€Å" Bantu † ( for â€Å" Bas Negeri Terengganu † ) would be a really appropriate as the word â€Å" Bantu † reflects the constructs of assisting and back uping each other. 7. Expanded KTM Komuter Service We have to gain that KTM Komuter has the lowest costs and greatest potency for enlargement among all manners of transit. An expanded KTM Komuter service ( that means, higher frequences, longer trains, faster trains, and more lines ) would promote people to utilize rapid theodolite. It merely costs excessively much to construct adequate LRT lines to do a difference in the transit substructure in the Klang Valley. KTM Komuter enlargement programs include new webs in the North and South, extensions from Sentul to Batu Caves, Rasa to Tanjung Malim, and Seremban to Senawang. A program is afoot to reconstruct more than a twelve damaged electric-multiple unit ( EMU ) trains, which would let higher frequence and more dependable service. The authorities must perpetrate to a existent enlargement of KTM Komuter service, intending more lines, adequate trains for five minute frequences, and dependable service. 8. More urban mass-transit lines LRT and mass theodolite should be built in urban countries, instead than suburban or rural countries. The cost of building is increasing daily, and this is why the authorities should be perpetrating to construct lines in urban countries, non suburban or rural countries. There is no ground, for illustration, to construct an LRT from Kuala Lumpur to Klang, when Kuala Lumpur itself still needs at least four more LRT lines ( in add-on to the new Kota Damansara-Cheras line ) . Urban countries need mass theodolite. Urban countries have huge Numberss of people and they have the population denseness to do mass-transit cost effectual. Suburban countries do non necessitate mass theodolite such as LRT lines. They truly need enhanced, frequent and dependable coach service to travel the huge Numberss of people spread out over a broad country. The planned Kota Damansara-Cheras LRT line will go through Kuala Lumpur. The Sentul-Batu Caves extension will alter transit in the northern countries of Kuala Lumpur. However, extra lines are needed in Kuala Lumpur to make the nucleus of a mass-transit web. The authorities should be constructing in urban countries, non the suburban countries. Extensions are for the hereafter. The nucleus of the mass-transit web demands to be built now. 9. Promoting Park and Ride The authorities should implement the user of Park and Ridein urban country. But before that the quality of service of Park and Ride system demand to be improved where more frequent service of the coachs to bring the people from one point to another. Besides improve the service, other schemes to increase the figure of coach user is provide adequate information to the client. Kiosk and information Centre is suited to advise the information about Park and Ride system to the people. Selling and publicity such as image advertisement, new occupant publicity and menu inducements may besides impact the figure of bus user.Malaysians seem to hold an compulsion with LRT and a misinterpretation of traffic congestion. We besides think that traffic jobs can be solved with monolithic undertakings instead than simple solutions. I wo n't tire you with the inside informations of why.LRT is a mass-transit, and it is dearly-won. As stated before, there is no possible manner to construct all of the LRT l ines that are needed to make speedy, dependable, convenient public transit. This means that other rapid theodolite options must be explored. Alternate signifiers of rapid theodolite include rapid ropewaies, and coach rapid theodolite. Even simple things like traffic signal precedence, coach lanes, and traffic monitoring cameras will do a immense difference.Sadly, the bulk of people in Malaysia still cleaving to the belief that traffic visible radiations, reduced figure of lanes, and roundabouts contribute to traffic congestion. The truth is that traffic congestion is caused by holding excessively many autos on the route at the same clip. Fewer autos equal lower congestion.There is hope that the reaching of local public transit governments will do a large difference, spread outing and heightening public transit. Extremist thoughts need to be implemented to cut down the figure of autos on the route. Bus lanes are merely a start but they are easy to implement. Bus Rapid Transit would b e the following measure.A dependable Bus Rapid Transit service running along major roads like Jalan Puchong, Jalan Klang Lama, the Federal Highway, Jalan Ipoh, Jalan Kepong, and others, would besides assist. The authorities must denote a program to put in tram lines, non merely extra LRT lines.10. Decrease in gasoline subsidy and inducements to promote the usage of public transitPetrol subsidies may do the lives of some people easier, but economic sciences say that anytime you fix the monetary value of an point below its natural monetary value, demand will increase and this will finally ensue in deficits of the merchandise. We have seen this happen in Malaysia with cooking oil, sugar, and Diesel fuel. Petrol and wheat may be the following points confronting deficits.The monetary value of gasoline in Malaysia is low ( compared to universe markets ) . Malaysians are driving more and demanding more gasoline. The supply is less and less dependable. Any instability is paid through revenu e enhancements and authorities financess.Other states such as Indonesia ( 2005 ) and Myanmar ( 2007 ) have seen immense additions in the monetary value of fuel after the authorities could no longer afford the subsidies.One manner to cut down the demand for gasoline is to cut down the subsidy ( thereby raising the monetary value at the pumps ) and directing that money into enhanced public conveyance service. The authorities needs to accept that this determination, though unpopular at first, will be in the best involvements of the people.To do their point clear, the authorities should cut down the gasoline subsidy by an sum of RM0.08 per liter, which would take to an increased pump monetary value of RM2.00 per liter. An 8 sen addition in the monetary value of gasoline ( after the election, of class ) would be much easier to accept than a 60 sen hiking in 2 to 3 old ages clip. The authorities should apportion the financess saved towards bettering and heightening public transit.There ar e many simple things that the authorities can make to heighten public transit across the state, and these can be implemented rapidly. An expanded Touch ‘N ‘ Go service, subsidies for coach operations, revenue enhancement inducements on the purchase of monthly theodolite base on ballss, and investing in support of public conveyance governments would do a immense difference for Malaysia.DrumheadThe proposals here are comparatively uninteresting and less glamourous than new LRT lines or monorails in every metropolis that asks for one. The fact is that public transit can be interesting and glamourous and inspiring. However, before that can all go on, there must be alterations in the attitude of the authorities and the people.It is good to believe that improved public transit is portion of the solution to traffic congestion in Malaysia. However, many people do non talk out and demand better public transit, and do non really intend to utilize the improved public transit.They a re losing the point. We can merely hold inspiring, glamourous, interesting and effectual public transit if there are alterations at the authorities degree. Once the authorities makes the necessary alterations, creates a national public transit scheme and a National Public Transportation Department, so we will eventually be on path to a great hereafter.a regular user of public conveyance, is profoundly concerned that authorities programs to promote the usage of public conveyance will finally neglect because of hapless planning and deficiency of support from the populace. 5.0 Decision Guaranting advancement towards sustainable development suppose to be a precedence of the Malayan authorities. Transport is a peculiarly ambitious sector. It is indispensable to modern life, but has many inauspicious effects on wellness and environment. Most transport tendencies are unsustainable. More attempt must be put on to develop public conveyance because survey found that utilizing public conveyance can minimise the environmental pollution and impact of wellness to homo. Although there is a batch of bad intelligence -A the good intelligence is it ‘s non excessively late! We can implement solutions, but we need to move fast and we need our authorities to take the lead.A

Social Structures

Social structure theories are based on relationships or bonds. A good example of a social structure would be family counseling. This is where families would learn to bond and work together. Community events such as team events or social gatherings can become part of the social structure that helps to mold juveniles being involved in positive social functions is important in the development of a youth. So in my community the Youth Sports program will be a good example of â€Å"social structure. Because this involves both juveniles and families it provides the ability to have closer relationship with both family and community. Social process theories go rights along with both the conflict and the social theory. It is a learned behavior one that often comes from watching siblings or parents display tier patterns of behavior. A public program that exemplifies this again would be the Boys and Girls club. These clubs are designed to create positive environments for children and youth to spend time learning sports and positive interactions. Social conflict theories definition, what the cause of crime is and how does economics play a part in this theory. Social economics do play a factor in how juveniles are treated in the system after committing a crime. In a poor neighborhood if a youth steals a TV they are quite often convicted and sent to Juvenile detention. A juvenile from a more affluent neighborhood may only be brought into court and considered indiscretions. How the county’s juvenile programs would treat the two social groups differently. This happens with both youth and adults. The juvenile system would be an example of this social structure theory and how the conflict between social groups is treated in the system. Juvenile detention is the county’s number one way in which to denture criminal behavior.

Introduction to Quality Assurance

One of the important aspects of any healthcare organization is the quality assurance mechanism.   Any healthcare organization would have to be professionally competent, ensuring that the processes in the organization would ultimately ensure the safety of the services provided.   The organization should develop an effective strategy of handling the quality issues. It is important that the administrators understand the importance of quality, develop a quality assurance program, implement it in a phased manner over a period of time, release resources needed for quality assurance, utilize appropriate quality tools, develop and maintain processes and develop an appropriate auditing system.   Some of the quality assurance tools utilized include management tools, presentation tools and statistical analysis tools.   Some of the process deployment tools include marketing tools, tools for changing behavior, etc (Software Certifications, 2006). As healthcare sector is a vital industry, it is very important that quality assurance is given prime importance by the organization.   One of the very important aspects is customer satisfaction and reducing risk.   Protection of patients is the most important aspect of quality assurance.   However, not less important is to ensure that cost-effectiveness and responsive attitude is maintained.   All these significantly contribute towards bringing about patient satisfaction (LRQA, 2003). Some of the measures that may be required for quality assurance include:- Having a quality assurance program in priority areas Responding to the needs of the public appropriately Identifying means by which costs can be reduced and implementing a strategy to save costs Developing best practices mechanisms Accreditation in order to improve quality standards Not only achieving certain quality standards but upgrading them frequently Having an effective decision-making and problem-solving process in the organization (Gonzalez, 2006). References: Gonzalez, M. (2006). â€Å"Health Care Sector Reform and Quality Assurance in Costa Rica.’ Retrieved on April 11, 2008, from QA Project Web site: http://www.qaproject.org/pubs/PDFs/costarica.pdf Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance Limited (2003). â€Å"Quality in the healthcare sector.† Retrieved on April 11, 2008, from LRQA Review Web site: http://www.lrqa.fr/frsite/content/pdf/rev0603.pdf Software Certifications (2006). â€Å"2006 CSQA Body of Knowledge.† Retrieved on April 11, 2008, from Software Certifications Web site: http://www.softwarecertifications.org/csqabok/csqa6cbok4.htm

Structure And Anarchy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Structure And Anarchy - Essay Example Any organization has a structure and leadership. It is also recognized that an organization is primarily its people. In theoretical discussions it is widely agreed that social movements are not organizations. As Freeman (1978) says," Granted, most movements are not organizations and thus not able to make conscious decisions about their direction. Usually they consist of numerous core groups and a large penumbra of sympathizers. Nonetheless, these core groups serve as the foci of a movement's values and activities and determine much of its deliberate policy". It is here that the crux issue rises. Lacking a resolute structure a social movement always faces instability and the conflict between group maintenance needs and goal achievement needs. The core values of the movement can have a constellation of other values supported by differing groups. These values can be parallel or opposed to core values. The opposing values and their support groups can be in a consensus and form a noticeab le opposition. So long as the leadership and the majority that support leadership and movement's core values are able to outnumber and control opposing opinions and groups structure prevails and the movement sails along smoothly with foci values. The instability of movements and opposite values and opinions are particularly strong in movements with democratic values, where the structure is deliberately loosely defined and monitored as too much structure can suppress participation and inhibit eagerness.(Lenin,1901) So social movements offer incentives for order maintenance and also to increase membership. Wilson (1973) identifies four major categories of incentives that an organization can deploy in order to maintain its membership. These are material incentives (money, goods, and other tangible rewards); specific solidarity incentives (status, power, and other intangible benefits that are scarce); collective solidarity incentives (prestige, friendship, fun, and other rewards from be ing part of a group); and purposive incentives (value fulfillment, or the sense of satisfaction from contributing to a worthwhile cause).Maintenance of consensus becomes a major task of the movement leadership so as to remain on course to foci values.Graeber(2002) defines the consensus process as ," The basic idea of consensus process is that, rather than voting, you try to come up with proposals acceptable to everyone-or at least, not highly objectionable to anyone: first state the proposal, then ask for 'concerns' and try to address them". Anarchy When opposition in a movement becomes splintered with no conclusive or majority based foci value then chaos prevails. "Anarchy means without government, which is different forms of vertically organized, i.e. chaotic included, economic and/or political-administrative

USA Fall Choral Concerts October Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

USA Fall Choral Concerts October - Essay Example The Megan Squier and Brent Norwell together with their rehearsal accompanists opened the stage. The audience’s appraisal that welcomed the group to the floor was enough testimony of their popularity. The group understood the yearning of the audience and did not waste time with idle talks. It was music that the audience wanted. Immediately, Brent Norwell’s mastery hands were on the rule moving side to side as he conducted the different voices to their tempos and beats. The soft keys of the Piano gave the accompaniment needed. This group had the unison; it was as if they were blended together. All the voices were clearly distinguishable, the base, the tenor, the alto and soprano, in such a gracious harmony, there could not have been a better choir. After the Megan Squier and Brent Norwell choir team left the stage, University Chorale took over. This group consisted mainly of trainers of music and, therefore, they had something to proof their credentials. The soprano voices of the songbirds in the likes of Monica Ganoe, Katherine Hicks and Erica Washington had the key that penetrated deeply into the hearts of the music fans. The tenor synchronized the keys, graced with the experienced Michael Devery and Isaac Evans. The bass and the alto of the choir completed a complete set of gifted voices. It was a performance to recall, as was legible in the faces of the excited audience later in the evening as we headed home. Bohnet, Keith. "USA Fall Choral Concerts October 10 and 11 at Laidlaw!"Â  USA. University of South Alabama, 30 Sept. 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2011.

Solow Growth Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Solow Growth Model - Essay Example Solow Growth Model is a standard neoclassical model of economic growth developed by Robert Solow. This model holds that economic growth is linked to capital accumulation and the population growth (Zhuang and St Juliana, 2010, p. 65). Solow growth model postulates that under equilibrium, the level of per capita income is determined by prevailing technology, rates of saving, rate of population growth and technical progress all which are assumed exogenous (Barossi-Filho, 2005, p. 37). Given that the rates of population growth and levels of saving are varying across countries, the model gives testable predictions on assessing how the two can influence economic growth of countries. Solow model has been criticized by different theorists given the assumptions made by this theory. This paper will explain the impacts of both population growth and increase in the saving rates upon economic growth. Moreover, the paper will explain how Solow model accounts for technological progress and assess w hether Romer model improves on this. Impact of both population growth and an increase in the savings rate upon economic growth Increased production of goods and services leads to economic growth. In the light of this statement, any country that desires to achieve economic growth must have optimal factors of production (Song, 2009, p. 7). The factors of production include capital, labor, technology, land and entrepreneur. When these factors are optimized economic growth of the country will be positive. Solow growth model predicts that economic growth results from accumulation of capital and population growth rate (Zhuang and St Juliana, 2010, p. 65). Moreover, the model starts by making an assumption of capital accumulation is subject to diminishing returns (Stein, 2007, p. 193). Solow model argues that developing countries with low capital stock can achieve higher economic growth compared to developed countries by increasing their savings and investment rates. Solow model postulates that increased rates of savings leads to capital accumulation. The theory behind increased savings resulting in capital accumulation is that higher savings leads increased amount of funds that can be offered as credit for capital investment. Consequently, this borrowed capital will be invested in the production industry and therefore the gross domestic products will be higher (Song, 2009, p. 9). Investment is required for the development of infrastructure required for production. However, Liu and Guo (2002, p. 25) argues that economic growth of a country depends on its ability to deploy the savings to finance capital investment. In the Solow model, the second factor identified to influence economic growth of a country is its population growth. Population provides an important factor of production; labor and consequently as population grows it adds to the available labor it contributes to economic growth of any country. However, given the rule of diminishing returns on factors of pr oduction it is necessary to strike equilibrium between the labor and other factors of production (Song, 2009, p. 10). The combined effect of impact of increased rates of saving and population growth can be understood using the Solow model. This model offers testable predictions since these two factors are different across nations. Song (2009, p. 9) argues that countries having high saving levels usually have higher per capita incomes while those experiencing high population growth have lower per capita inco

Problem In the Field Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Problem In the Field - Essay Example According to Riley (2012)1, the main purpose of accounting is to report on entities’ financial position and to show the financial performance of an entity over a particular period. Accounting information has a wide scope of users. These users consist of shareholders, government, creditors, suppliers, customers, public, employers, competitors, investors and managers of a business or an organization. Due to its wide scope of users, accounting information plays an important role in influencing various business decisions made in industries, companies, government offices and business entities. Accounting process follows numbers of values that enable accounting information to be reliable and useful to users. The essential ethics in accounting include honesty and integrity, faithfulness and trustworthiness, dependability and reliance and ability to care for others (Connell, 2002). 2 Accounting provides many benefits to users in different areas of the economy in Today’s World. First, accounting information and knowledge is widely used in all job specialties. Auditors apply accounting techniques in studying financial statements in the process of evaluating integrity and accuracy of enterprises. Secretaries use accounting information in carrying out different tasks in their organizations. For example, secretaries manage check books and order statements in different companies using accounting knowledge. Executives also use accounting information in financial statements in judging performance and success of companies and organizations. Executives use accounting information in determining growth rates of their companies and the profit margin obtained. Accounting information and techniques are important for individual and personal benefits. Use of accounting information enables individuals to assess, manage and control personal finances adequately. In addition, individuals may apply accounting techniques and

Cultural Industries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Cultural Industries - Essay Example The element of creativity that has been present in the local planning structure and policies of such countries have led to the development of the cultural industries. The mangers and other business academicians have always recommended creativity for business prosperity. This creativity has culminated into success of cultural industries. Industries such as theater, television as well as software can be cited as examples of cultural industries (Hesmondhalgh, 2007, p.142). International Organizations like UNESCO have also adopted cultural policies like the Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity Initiative in 2004 in favor of these creative cities which have facilitated development of cultural industries. Establishment of schools and institutions focusing on the regions cultural music is also an instance of how cultural industries have grown over the years (Isar, 2009, p.281). Thus the sense of creativity and the region’s cultural practices has played a key role in establishing in dustries that focus on cultural regeneration. The current paper provides an access to the ways by which creative and cultural industries focusing on social and cultural regeneration have developed in some cities through various findings and case examples. Creativity existing within such creative cities has positively contributed to development of urbanization. Effective instruments and policy measures that have been undertaken in these cities solely concentrate on the region’s cultural practices existing within the society. ... Culture always has immense influence on consumption. These cities also tend to preserve the underlying duality existing between manufacturing and services (Pratt, 2008). Ways adopted for development of cultural industries In 2001the value of creative industries in United States has been computed as US $791.2 billion. Such a value amounts to 7.75 percent of the total GDP of the country. Employment level in these industries has also been quite high. These industries have hired about eight million people. People have been lured by the country’s culture and there has been a growing demand for the cultural products. These industries have exported and sold goods worth US $88.97 billion. The sales value has been greater than that computed for other industries such as chemicals, aircraft, electronics and automobile industries. For Australia too, the value computed I found to be as high as $A25 billion. The statistics speak itself for the emerging success of these creative industries. Creativity results in creating innovated products. Such innovations are essential for cultural industries as well as for other industries (Hartley, 2005, pp.1-2). Human intelligence and creativity have always proved beneficial for industrial development and thus has yielded the desired level of outcome. Moreover the other booming industries such as the information technology, financial services and the telecom industries are getting blurred with the capabilities of our imagination. They may also be thought of collapsing in the near future (Hartley, 2005, p.117). These creative industries which are developed out of culture and art are known to be more responsible towards the small scale enterprises and nonprofit organizations. This can be

Healthcare Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Healthcare Communication - Essay Example She was following the rules of gaining information. There was also a conflict of interest regarding the setting. According to HIPAA or the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, 1996 the mode of communication and interaction should be lucid, fast and simple. But in this case the nurse complicated the matter and it appears as a direct violation of HIPPA Title II that denotes AS or Administrative Simplification. (Fletcher, 187) Clearly the responsible parties are the hospital employees including the nurse and the in a way the training institute and the hospital are also responsible. It should be mentioned that the patient parties are also responsible as they could have been more tolerant in this case. As everything was happening in a public place, people were quite aware of the situation. The nurse was not able to demonstrate flexibility and responsiveness as accurately or quickly as she might have if the setting were clear. This led to an unprofessional approach to the situation, which in turn led to it blowing up. Finally, because the nurse was informed a week earlier of the new teachings of consent forms, she felt her battle with the husband and the surgeon both were against professional practice regarded as appropriate at the hospital. Again, she had the dilemma of not being able to show professionalism in the most important setting of her work.

Parental spying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Parental spying - Essay Example And because of the usage of the term â€Å"parental spying†, parental supervision was suddenly perceived as unethical where it may be deemed improper for parents to check on the activities of their children. This is aggravated by the fact that there are quarters in society who argue that children should be left on their own and that their private spaces should be respected without the presence of parents. As a result, children who are recipient of this idea complain that their parents are intruding too much that they no longer have their private space. Parents in turn became oblivious on how to deal with this new idea if it is really unethical to check on their children as what society perceives it to be. Looking at it however under the strict scrutiny and standard of morals (what is right and wrong), parental spying is not in fact unethical and has ethical and philosophical basis that it is carried out in the interest of the greater good and that it does not violate the moral rights of other. Anyone who is well verse on the basis of ethics will agree with the use of these standards in determining that it is indeed ethical to check on one’s children. The ethical and philosophical basis of parental spying can be derived from the philosophy of utilitarian ethics as espoused by the prominent 19th century philosopher John Stuart Mill. The notion of having children closely monitored or spied upon on the basis that it is in the interest of greater good and does not violate the moral rights of others has in fact ethical and philosophical grounds. We can glean on John Stuart Mill’s utilitarian ethics which is the â€Å"creed which accepts the foundation of morals, utility or the greatest happiness principles holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness† (Oregon State University) which in this case the interest of greater good. It may even surprise people that Mill is also an advocate of personal liberty and limited government authority but will readily compromise personal liberty especially of children for the greater good of society. If one asks how parental spying serves the greater good, we can put forth the ideal that raising children to become good and responsible adults is in the interest of the greater good. Children are our future and it is only fitting that we should do everything at our own disposal to guide them so that they will not go astray. If children go astray or did not realize their potential or did not even become better, we can only imagine how our future society would become. If we let them astray and become criminals or despondent, then our society will be reduced to or slide back towards barbarism and crudity in the future. It is therefore in our best interest to prepare our children well for the future and the best way to do that is to exercise parental spying to make sure they are properly guided. Consider the opposite of parental spying which is the absentee parent where the child is left entirely on his or her own. They leave children at their tender age where their faculty to decide what right and wrong to decide for themselves or left them alone. As a result, children go astray because they became vulnerable to undesirable influences at an early age because they cannot discern what is good and bad for them which parents should have done for them. Thus, parental spying

Greek and Norse Mythology. Essay Example for Free

Greek and Norse Mythology. Essay Greek mythology and Roman mythology are almost identical. This is an accepted fact, as it is widely known that the Romans stole the Greek myths. However, it is very interesting to note that the mythology of the Vikings (Norse) has many similarities with the Greek myths. These myths are, by no means, identical to the Greek ones (like the Roman ones are), but there are very distinct commonalities between the two. I see two possible reasons for this besides pure coincidence. The first has to do with the fact that Norse myths were codified during the Viking era: 780 1070. This gives the Norsemen many centuries to become exposed to the Greek (or Roman) myths. The Vikings did travel as far east as the Caspian sea, which is further east than both Italy and Greece. The Norse myths were fashioned after the fall of the Roman empire. During the expansion of the Roman empire, the Romans were able to get all the way to Britain, which is farther west than the Scandinavian countries where these myths originated. The Vikings made many expeditions into Britain. So it is a very realistic thought that the Vikings could have been exposed to the stories of the Greek and Roman gods. It is also possible that the Vikings could have extrapolated parts of the Roman stories into their own. The only two existing primary sources of Norse mythology are the Prose (Elder) Edda, and the Poetic (Younger) Edda. These were written about one thousand to eight hundred years ago respectively. The second factor has to do with mythology as an extension of the society that fashions it. I see mythology as an attempt by a people to explain the powerful forces which affect and shape it, that are beyond its control, such as weather, the elements, and nature. I also see gods as being characters that have many similarities with the people within the society. The gods and goddesses are powerful beings capable of super-human powers, but nevertheless are characters fraught with very human frailties and flaws. In this way they created gods that had similarities with the common man in the society. This made the gods more tangible and easier to identify with. I think that this was necessary because they were not yet at the societal maturity level to have a single god on a cosmic plane. Most of the comparisons will be examining the similarities between major Greek and Norse gods, as well as creatures, stories and specific symbols which are featured in the mythologies.

Bluefield health plan Essay Example for Free

Bluefield health plan Essay Arc Electric employees were opting for their health insurance plan. Arc Electric had expanded their workforce due to which more employees were enrolling for Bluefield’s health insurance plan for the benefits. But when Bluefield released that the utilization of their physician services had tremendously increased in the last 6 months because of which their profits were being affected, they had to find out the cause for this. Soon they realized that the main cause for the increase in the utilization of their physician services was the increase in the number of new employees who were opting for the health insurance plan. Exhibit 1 clearly shows that the number of Arc Electric employees using Bluefield’s Health insurance plan has increased from 3912 in July, 2006 to 4137 in August, 2006. Thus, in only one month the increase has been of 225 people, which is comparatively quite high. Also, in 2006, the total cost incurred by Arc Electric for inpatient and outpatient hospital services were 203425 and 182440 in July and 212250 and 180700 in August, and for surgical services were 101250 and 103400 in July and August. Thus, the total cost incurred for hospital services and surgical services were 487115 and 496350 in July and August. While on the other hand the total cost incurred by Arc Electric for visits to physician’s office was only 337900 and 391450 in July and August. Therefore we can see that the difference is almost of 147215 and 104900 in July and August. As Bluefield’s contract with Arc Electric was about to expire the next month, they had to renegotiate the terms in their contract with Arc Electric and request for an increase in their premium rate in order to maintain their profit. They had realized that the main reason for their erosion of profits was the increasing number of Arc Electric employees who had opted for their health insurance plan. But, Bluefield were also aware of the fact that during renegotiations if they tried to increase the fixed premium which they charged every employee of Arc Electric per month, then they may refuse to do anymore business with them and sign a contract with some other health insurance company. This, Bluefield was not ready to risk. Thus, Bluefield wanted the staff members and directors to devise a renegotiating strategy which they could present before Arc Electric and maintain their contract with them while at the same time see to it that their profitability remains at par. After much consideration and results from various studies, including Exhibit 1, the employees of Bluefield realized that simply by increasing their copayment charges they will not be able to bring about a decrease in the number of physician visits since people do not actually like to visit the physicians but rather do it in order to remain healthy and fit. The only way they can reduce their costs is by paying less to their health care providers, like the physicians. Thus, they first needed to negotiate with the physicians and ask them to decrease the costs of services supplied by them. If they simply asked the physicians to lower their cost of service by around 10% or 25% they might do it with the fear that they may loose all of their patients and also be left out of Bluefield’s health insurance plan. But this may have certain negative effects as in return of a lower fee per visit the physicians may also lessen the quality of care that they give to their clients. This is the reason why Bluefield required a further analysis of physicians visit. Out of the $250 fixed premium that Bluefield charged each employee of Arc Electric every month, the total premium revenue was portioned out as 55% for the hospital and surgical services and 30% for the physician visits. Thus while $137. 5 went for the hospital and surgical services only $75 went in for the physician visits. Thus for every premium collected, the profitability of hospital and surgical services was almost $62. 5 more than the profitability of the physician services. Thus, when compared to physician’s services, hospital and surgical services have a profitability of almost 45% more than the former.

Chromium Induced Toxicity Research

Chromium Induced Toxicity Research Abstract In the present study, we hypothesize that cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress play a key role in chromium induced toxicity in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines when exposed for 24 h. Acute toxicity tests were conducted on three fish species namely L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla by exposing them to different concentration (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L) of chromium for 96 h under static conditions and the LC50 was calculated. The percentage cell survival was assessed by multiple endpoints such as MTT, NR, AB and CB assays were performed in seven fish cell lines exposed to different concentrations of chromium and EC50 values of all the four endpoints was calculated. Linear correlations between each in vitro cytotoxicity assay and the in vivo mortality data were highly significant. Microscopic examination of cell morphology indicated cell shrinkage, cell detachment, vacuolations and cell swelling at highest concentration of chromium (50mg/L). The DNA damage and nuclear fragmentation were assessed by comet assay and Hoechst staining, in seven fish lines exposed to different concentrations of chromium. The result of antioxidant parameter obtained show significantly decreased catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione S-transferase (GSH) and Glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and increased level of lipid peroxidation (LPO) in all the cell lines after exposure to increasing chromium in a concentration-dependent manner. This results proves that fish cell lines could be used as an alternative to whole fish using cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress assessment after exposure to chromium. Keywords: Fish cell lines, Chromium, Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity, Oxidative stress 1. Introduction Heavy metal pollution of water is a serious environmental problem facing the modern world. At global level heavy metals pollution is increasing in the environment due to increase in number of industries (Chidambaram et al. 2009). Industrial effluents are discharged into the sewage canals, rivers and irrigation water, causing major pollution and health hazards (Baddesha and Rao 1986). Many industrial wastewaters contain heavy metals like cadmium, lead, zinc, cobalt and chromium. The toxic heavy metals are mostly absorbed and get accumulated in various plant parts as free metals which may adversely affect the plant growth and metabolism (Barman and Lal 1994). Human beings and cattle are badly affected when these metals are incorporated into food chain as it causes bronchitis and cancer (Khasim et al. 1989; McGrath and Smith 1990; Nath et al. 2005). Among heavy metals, chromium plays a major role in polluting our aquatic environment system. In nature chromium occurs predominately in two valances Cr (III) and Cr (VI). Hexavalent chromium [Cr (VI)] predominates over the Cr (III) form in natural waters. Hexavalent chromium [Cr (VI)] particulates enter the aquatic medium through effluents discharged from leather tanning, textiles, chrome electroplating, metal finishing, dyeing and printing industries and several other industries. The Cr (VI) penetrates biological membranes easily and causes cellular damage by oxidative stress (Irwin et al. 1997; Begum et al. 2006), its unselective exposure may pose serious effect on aquatic communities including fish. Toxic effects of Cr(VI) on enzymological/biochemical (Al-Akel and Shamsi 1996; Vutukuru et al. 2007; Oner et al. 2008), hematological (Gautam and Gupta 1989; Al-Akel and Shamsi 1996), immunological (Prabakaran et al. 2007) parameters, endocrine toxicity (Mishra and Mohanty 2009) and genotoxicity (Chen et al. 2011) have been reported in many teleosts fishes. In environmental risk assessment, much of the toxicity test on fish has involved the use of lethality as the endpoint. On the other hand, in vivo bioassay is expensive and requires huge quantity of toxicant. The exposure time is only 24 h as opposed 96 h in bioassay, which could reduce the cost of labor, lab facilities and test time but more importantly allow decisions to be made more rapidly. Nevertheless, toxicity testing with fish is an essential part of environmental risk assessment procedures (Castano et al. 2003). For all these considerations, the development and use of in vitro assays that could measure early stages of toxicity in vertebrates represent an approach that could be very useful to monitoring environmental risk assessment (Walker 1999). Over the last four decades, cell and tissue culture methods have been refined and have now become an essential tool in environmental research. There are a lot of ethical, scientific and economical reasons that support the development of in vitro methods for use in ecotoxicology (Castano and Gomez-Lechon 2005; Bols et al. 2005; Schirmer, 2006; Fent 2007; Taju et al. 2012, 2013, 2014). The use of fish cell lines in environmental toxicology has been reviewed and positively assessed mainly with regards to cytotoxicity (Babich and Borenfreund 1991; Castano et al. 2003; Fent 2001). Cytotoxicity assessments can be readily employed to examine multiple endpoints, including measurements of cell death (apoptosis), cell viability, cellular morphology, cell metabolism, cell attachment/detachment, cell membrane permeability, proliferation, growth kinetics, genotoxicity and oxidative stress (Maracine and Segner 1998; Li and Zhang 2002; Shuilleabhain et al. 2004; Taju et al. 2014). In the present study, three fish species from three different aquatic environments, Lates calcarifer (Marine), Etroplus suratensis (Brackishwater) and Catla catla (freshwater) were selected as representatives of their respective environments to study their suitability for acute toxicity test to evaluate the potential risk of chromium (Cr). They are excellent food fishes with a good market demand in India, Malaysia, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Some attempts were made to study in vivo acute toxicity in Sea bass, Etroplus and Catla using various toxicants (Chezhian et al. 2010; Azmat and Javed 2011, 2012; Bhat et al. 2012; Taju et al. 2012, 2013). The seven fish cell lines namely SISK and SISS cell lines derived from L. calcarifer (Sahul Hameed et al. 2006; Parameshwaran et al. 2006b), SICH and ICG cell lines derived from C. catla (Ishaq Ahmed et al. 2009b; Taju et al. 2014), and IEE, IEK and IEG cell lines derived from E. suratensis (Sarath Babu et al. 2012) were used as in vitro assays t o evaluate the cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress exposed to chromium. The results of in vitro cytotoxicity were compared with the results of in vivo acute toxicity test using fish. The use of these cell lines for toxicity assessment of chromium instead of living fish is recommended. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Chemicals and reagents Tissue culture media and chemicals were obtained from GIBCO (Invitrogen Corporation, USA). Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), EDTA, Trichloroacetic acid, DTNB [5,5-dithio-bis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid)], Thiobarbituric acid, Hydrogen peroxide, Nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT), Riboflavin, Hydroxylamine-HCl, Triton X-100, Ethidium bromide, Methanol, Acetic acid, Sodium chloride, Sodium hydroxide and Coomassie Blue was purchased from SRL chemicals, India. 2.2. Collection of experimental animals Lates calcarifer and Etroplus suratensis were collected from Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA), Chennai. Catla catla was collected from a local pond in Walajapet, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India. The experimental fishes were 2 3 g in body weight. Specimens were transported live in oxygen bags or buckets to the laboratory, acclimatized and maintained for 20-30 days in a salinity range of 5-10 ppt for E. suratensis, 20-25 ppt for L. calcarifer and in freshwater in the case of C. catla (23-28oC) under an ambient photoperiod in the laboratory for 10 days prior to experiments. The fish were fed with commercial pellet feed twice a day and starved for 24 h before and during the experiments. 2.3. In vivo fish acute toxicity test Fish acute toxicity tests were conducted by exposing E. suratensis, L. calcarifer and C. catla (N = 10 per aquarium) for 96 h to chromium under static conditions (OECD 203, 1992). Five different concentrations chromium i.e., 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L diluted with seawater (5 ppt) and freshwater while control with sea water and freshwater alone were tested to determine the LC50 (concentration at which 50% of the fish population dies). The aquaria had a working volume of 30 lit based on the body weight of fishes (1 g fish/L). Dead fishes were counted and removed immediately every day. All the experiments were conducted in triplicates. Mortalities were recorded following the guideline for fish acute toxicity OECD 203 (1992). 2.4. Fish Cell lines A total of seven cell lines established from different organs of L. calcarifer (SISS-seabass spleen, SISK-kidney), E. suratensis (IEE Etroplus eye, IEG gill, IEK kidney) and C. catla (SICH Catla heart, ICG gill) were tested for their sensitivities to chromium. These fish cell lines were propagated at 28oC in Leibovitzs L-15 medium (pH 7.0 -7.4) with 2mM L-glutamine, 10% foetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin 100 IU/ml and streptomycin 100 ÂÂ µg/ml. The osmolarity ranged from 300 to 360 mOsm kg-1. These cells were sub-cultured every 2-3 days using standard procedure. Cells at exponential growth phase were harvested and used for in vitro cytotoxicity tests. 2.5. In vitro cytotoxicity assay using fish-derived cell lines SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells at exponential growth phase were collected and diluted to a concentration of 105 cells/ml in Leibovitzs L-15 medium with 10% FBS. After agitation, the cells were added to each well of 96-well tissue culture plates at the concentration of 2 x 104/well and incubated overnight at 28oC. After incubation, the medium was removed and the cells were re-fed with medium containing 0 (control), 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L of chromium for 24 h EC50 analysis. Then four endpoints for cytotoxicity, i.e., MTT [3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay, Neutral red (NR) uptake assay, Alamar blue assay (AB) and protein concentration for Coomassie blue (CB) assay were determined after 24 h exposure as described by Borenfreund et al. (1988), Borenfreund and Puerner (1985), Taju et al. (2012) and Shopsis and Eng (1985), respectively. 2.5.1. Cell morphology SISS, SISSK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells were plated into a 24 well tissue culture plate at a density of 2ÃÆ'-105 cells (in 1 mL growth medium). After overnight growth, supernatants from the culture plates were removed and fresh aliquots of growth medium containing various concentrations of the chromium (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L) were exposed for 24 h. Upon incubation, cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) and the morphological changes were observed under an inverted phase-contrast microscope (Carl Zeiss, Germany) at 100ÃÆ'- magnification. 2.6. Assessment of in vitro genotoxicity using fish-derived cell lines 2.6.1. Comet assay The Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis (comet assay) was performed on SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines according to the method of Singh et al. (1988) with slight modifications in accordance with the protocols of Taju et al. (2014). 5 x 104 cells on 500 ÃŽÂ ¼L of complete culture medium were seeded per well in a 24-well-plate. After 24 h incubation, cells were exposed to chromium using the following concentrations: 0 (control), 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 mg/L. At the end of the exposure period, cells were collected through trypsinization, followed by centrifugation at 1000 rpm for two minutes to obtain the pellet and avoid cell loss. After the centrifugations, the supernatant was discarded and the pellet resuspended in 100 ÃŽÂ ¼L of 0.9% agarose in milliQ water (low-melting point agarose, Sigma Aldrich chemicals, USA). The suspensions of cells in agarose were then applied dropwise to microscope slides containing an agarose layer (agarose electrophoresis grade, prep ared with a 1% concentration in milliQ water), and kept in a freezer for 10 min. The cells were lysed in freshly made lysing solution (2.5 M NaCl, 100 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris-HCl, 10% DMSO, 1% Triton X-100, pH 10), for 1 h at 4 ÂÂ °C. After rinsing with redistilled water, the slides were placed on the horizontal gel box, covered with the cold alkaline buffer (0.3 M NaOH, 1 mM EDTA, pH >13) and left for 20 min. Electrophoresis was run in the same buffer at 25 V (0.83 V/cm) at 300 mA for 20 min at 4 ÂÂ °C. After electrophoresis the slides were neutralized in a cold neutralization buffer (0.4 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.5), for 2 to 5 min, fixed in methanol:acetic acid (3:1) for 5 min and stored in the dark at room temperature. Prior to examination, the slides were rehydrated and stained with 10 ÂÂ µg/mL ethidium bromide and examined using a Zeiss Axioplan epifluorescence microscope (Carl Zeiss, Germany). A positive control (5 ÂÂ µM H2O2) was also included in every batch of sample s. This strategy was chosen to compare the variation in the distance of migration. The positive control was not included in evaluation. Slides were examined at 100x magnifications using a fluorescence microscope. For each experimental condition 100 randomly chosen cells from two duplicate slides were examined (50 from each slide). In all 100 comets were scored visually according to the relative intensity of the fluorescence in the tail length. The extent of DNA migration was determined as a percentage of DNA in the tail (% tDNA) using an image analysis system comet 5, Kinetic Imaging Ltd. 2.6.2. Assessment Nuclear fragmentation by Hoechst 33258 Nuclear fragmentation of SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines was analyzed with Hoechst 33258. The cells were seeded in 12-well cell culture plates and incubated overnight. Then the cells were treated with different concentrations of chromium (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L). Cells were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 30 min, washed with PBS, and stained with 1 ÃŽÂ ¼g/mL Hoechst 33258 in PBS for 30 min. Stained cells were washed twice with PBS. The changes in nuclei were observed with a fluorescent microscope through a UV filter. 2.7. Preparation of cell extract and Biochemical estimations The SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines were exposed to different concentrations of chromium (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 mg/L) on 25 cm2 flasks for 24 h. After 24 h they were trypsinized and pelleted by centrifugation at 500ÃÆ'-g for 5 min. The cell pellet was washed with PBS (0.1M, pH7.4), resuspended in 500 ÂÂ µl chilled homogenizing buffer (250mM sucrose, 12mM Tris-HCl, 0.1mM DTT, pH 7.4) and lysed using Dounce homogenizer. The lysate was centrifuged (8000ÃÆ'-g, 10 min, 4 ÂÂ °C) and the supernatant (cell extract) was used for various biochemical assays. Protein concentration in the cell extract was estimated by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). The enzymatic antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were determined by following the procedures described by Kono (1978). Catalase (CAT) activity was determined by following the method described by Aebi (1974). The level of non-enzymatic antioxidant reduced glutathione (GSH) was estimated following the procedures described Saldak and Lindsay (1968). The activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) was assayed by the method of Flohe and Gunzler, (1984). The level of lipid peroxidation (LPO) was measured according to the method described Beuge and Aust (1978) based on the reaction with thiobarbituric acid. The results were recorded as ÂÂ µmol of TBA reactive substances/mg protein. The enzymatic and non-enzymatic parameters was expressed as ÂÂ µmol/mg protein. 2.8. Data analysis Experiments were performed in triplicate with eight replicates for each exposure concentration. Absolute values of each assay were transformed to control percentages. The results of LC50 and EC50 values were expressed as dilution in (mg/L) of the sample calculated using computerized (EPA, 2000) software. The individual data points of the concentration response cytotoxicity graph were presented as the arithmetic mean percent inhibition relative to the control standard error (SE). Cell viability and the concentration were fitted Scatter plots with the regressive equation (a linear regression model). The strength of the r2 value was used to determine whether a linear or quadratic relationship was assumed. Analysis of variance was used to determine whether groups of variables differed from each other (SPSS, Version 16). 3. Results The cumulative percentage mortality in L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla exposed to different concentrations of chromium was determined at 96 h and the results are presented in Fig 1. The toxic effect of chromium on the survival of fish was found to be concentration and time dependent. The chromium at the concentration of 50 mg/L caused 100%, 96.66% and 90% mortality, respectively, in L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla, whereas lower concentration of chromium at 10 mg/L caused 26.66%, 16.66% and 20% mortality of L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla respectively. No mortality was recorded in the control fish even after 96 h exposure. The LC50 values corresponding to 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of exposure of chromium were determined and results are presented in Table 1. Five different concentrations which ranged from 10 to 50 mg/L of chromium were used to carry out the in vitro toxicity assay in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines using four cytotoxicity end points (MTT, NR, AB and CB assays) and the results are shown in Fig.2 A-D. The cytotoxicity of chromium to SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines was found to be similar in all the toxic endpoints employed. The lowest concentration of chromium tested (10 mg/L) was found to toxic in all the cell lines particularly SICH and IEK cell lines. The progressive increase in the concentration of chromium led to increase in toxicity when compared to control cells. The MTT, NR, AB and CB cytotoxicity endpoint assays revealed that a 24-h exposure of all the cell lines to different concentrations of chromium produced a dose-dependent reduction in the fraction of viability. The EC50 values and 95% confidence limit values obtained for chromium are summarized in Table 2. Correlations a mong the endpoints employed in the SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines to study cytotoxicity of chromium have been determined. A general tendency in the sensitivity among the four endpoints could be observed and statistical analysis revealed good correlation with R2 = 0.889-0.927 for all combinations between endpoints (Data not shown). The in vivo values of L. calcarifer vs. in vitro data of its two cell lines exposed to chromium were highly significant p2=0.956 (L. calcarifer vs. SISS) and 0.962 (L. calcarifer vs. SISK); R2=0.973 and 0.993; R2=0.980 and 0.975; R2=0.992 and 0.977 for MTT (Fig 3A), NR (Fig 3B), AB(Fig 3C) and CB (Fig 3D), respectively. The in vivo values of E. suratensis were compared with in vitro values of its three cell lines (IEE, IEG and IEK) exposed to chromium and were found to be highly significant p2=0.985 (E. suratensis vs. IEE), 0.987 (E. suratensis vs. IEK) and 0.968 (E. suratensis vs. IEG); R2=0.980, 0.936 and 0.956; R2=0.961, 0.955 and 0.904 and R2=0.955, 0.939 and 0.974 for MTT (Fig 3E), NR (Fig 3F), AB(Fig 3G) and CB (Fig 3H), respectively. Linear correlations between each in vitro vs. in vivo (C. catla)values of chromium were highly significant p2=0.991 (C. catla vs, SICH) and 0.993 (C. catla vs, ICG); R2=0.982 and 0.983; 0.974 and 0.990 and 0.987 and 0.984 for MTT (Fig 3I), NR (Fig 3J), AB(Fig 3K) and CB (Fig 3L), respectively. The prominent morphological changes of the cells exposed to high concentrations of chromium were observed. The changes observed include cell shrinkage, cell detachment, vacuolations and cell swelling in SISS (Fig 4H), SISK (Fig 4I), IEE (Fig 4J), IEK (Fig 4L), IEG (Fig 4L), SICH (Fig 4M) and ICG (Fig 4N) cell lines. In controls, no morphological alterations were observed in the SISS (Fig 4A), SISK (Fig 4B), IEE (Fig 4C), IEK (Fig 4D), IEG (Fig 4E), SICH (Fig 4F) and ICG (Fig 4G) cell lines. The percentage of DNA damage and the cumulative tail length from 100 cells per sample were measured in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells exposed to different concentrations of chromium (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L) and the results are shown in Fig. 5. The length of tail DNA in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells exposed to 10 mg/L of chromium was estimated to be about 1.7%, 2.0%, 1.3%, 1.5%, 2.1%, 1.4% and 1.5%, respectively at a 24-h exposure, and chromium at the concentration of 50 mg/L caused 8.9%, 11.0%, 9.4%, 8.8%, 11.1%, 6.4% and 7.2% of tail DNA migration in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells, respectively (Fig. 5). Comet results of chromium exposed SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells showed a dose dependent increase in tail DNA (%) compared to the control cells, which gave the extent of DNA damage. The SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells were exposed to chromium for 24 h at different concentrations (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/L) and the results are shown in Fig. 6A-N. Apoptotic cells were identified by Hoechst staining of condensation and fragmentation of the nuclei as shown in SISS cells (Fig. 6H), SISK cells (Fig. 6I), IEE cells (Fig. 6J), IEK cells (Fig. 6K), IEG cells (Fig. 6L), SICH cells (Fig. 6M) and ICG cells (Fig. 6N) at higher concentration i.e. 50 mg/L of chromium exposed for 24 h, while no nuclear changes were observed in control cells are shown in SISS cells (Fig. 6A), SISK cells (Fig. 6B), IEE cells (Fig. 6C), IEK cells (Fig. 6D), IEG cells (Fig. 6E), SICH cells (Fig. 6F)and ICG cells (Fig. 6G). The level of antioxidant parameters such as SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH and LPO was measured in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells exposed to different concentrations of chromium and the results were presented in Fig 7A-E. Regarding oxidative stress biomarkers, no significant change was observed in SOD, CAT, GSH and LPO levels in the SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells exposed to lower concentrations i.e. 10 mg/L of chromium when compared to the control cells. However, when these cell lines were exposed to 50 mg/L of chromium, the activity of SOD (~2.1, ~2.3, ~1.5, ~1.3, ~2.3, ~1.2 and ~2.2 fold in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells respectively in Fig 7A), CAT (~5.2, ~6.8, ~5.3, ~7.4, ~6.4, ~5.2 and ~4.6 fold in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells respectively Fig 7B) and level GSH (~1.6, ~1.5, ~1.3, ~1.6, ~1.5, ~1.8 and ~1.3 fold in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells respectively Fig 7C) and GPx (~1.2, ~1.1, ~1.0, ~1.2, ~1.1, ~0.9 and ~1. 3 fold in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells respectively Fig 7D) decreased was found to be significantly (*P 4. Discussion Heavy metals constitute a main group of aquatic pollutants due to their bioacuumulative and non-biodegradable properties (Velma and Tchounwou 2010). Their excessive contamination of aquatic ecosystems has evoked major environmental and health concerns worldwide (Vutukuru et al. 2007). Chromium is the sixth most abundant heavy metal in the earth crust (U.S. EPA 1984). Fish and Fish cell lines constitute an excellent model to understand the mechanistic aspects of metal toxicity (Taju et al. 2014). In this study, we have examined the in vivo toxicity in three fish species in different environment i.e. L. calcarifer (Marine water), E. suratensis (brackish water) and C. catla (Fresh water), and in vitro cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity of the three same fish cell lines, SISS, SISK (Seabass spleen and kidney cell lines), IEE, IEK, IEG (Etroplus eye, kidney and gill cell lines), SICH and ICG (Catla heart and gill cell lines) an exposure to chromium. The results of this study clearly show that the fish cell lines experienced oxidative stress by modulating the antioxidant enzyme, exhibited DNA damage, nuclear fragmentation and microscopic morphological changes in the SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cells. The LC50 values of chromium were determined as 30.22, 33.83 and 30.64 mg/L respectively in L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla, respectively at 96 h of exposure in this study. Recently, Mishra and Mohanty (2009) reported the LC50 values of chromium on Channa punctatus at 96 h of exposure as 41.75 mg/L. The LC50 values observed by Mishra and Mohanty (2009) were found to be higher when compared to L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla and this indicates that the L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla were found to more sensitive to chromium. Seven fish cell lines derived from L. calcarifer (SISS SISK), E. suratensis (IEE, IEK and IEG) and C. catla (SICH and ICG) were applied to evaluate the cytotoxicity of chromium using MTT, AB, NR and cell protein (CB) assays. The results of in vitro assays were compared with the results of in vivo test to determine the suitability of these fish cell lines for toxicological studies to replace the use of whole fish. The evaluation of cytotoxicity of chemical substances using animal cells has been carried out by many workers (Ekwall 1980a, 1983; Metcalfe 1971; Muir 1983a, 1983b; Paganuzzi et al. 1981; Benoit et al. 1987). Four commonly used endpoint assays (MTT, NR AB and cell protein assay CB) were employed in the present study using SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines of E. suratensi, C. catla and L. calcarifer to evaluate the in vitro cytotoxicity of chromium. The main observation was that the cytotoxicity was closely associated in all the seven cell lines independent of the toxic endpoints employed. This not only supports the observations of Ekwall (1995) and Li and Zhang (2002) that most cell lines have a similar results to toxicants when toxicity is measured by different endpoints, corresponding to inhibition or destruction of basal functions and structures, and also suggests that endpoints employed in the present study can also be used to predict acute cytotoxicity. Tan et al. (2008) have used six fish cell lines to study the toxicity of four heavy metals: cadmium, chromium, zinc, and copper by using two cytotoxicity endpoints MTT and CB assays. The results revealed that carp epithelioma cells are least tolerant to chromium. The NR uptake assay is a useful method for comparing the relative acute cytotoxicity of metals in vitro with metal and chemicals toxicity studies in whole fish in vivo (Brandao et al. 1992; Ryan and Hightower 1994; Taju et al. 2013). In the present study, we employed that SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines for cytotoxicity assessment of chromium by using four endpoints. Our results show that there is no significant difference between all the four endpoints. Segner (1994) reported that the relationship of the in vitro cytotoxicity values to in vivo fish toxicity data is less satisfying and that this might be due to the inconsistency of the in vivo values. As observed in the present study, a positive relationship of acute lethal potency in fish with in vitro cytotoxicity has been found by Fry et al. (1990). Castano et al. (1996) found good correlations between in vivo and in vitro for each endpoint and for the cytotoxicity index and suggested the applicability of the RTG-2 cell line as an alternative protocol to estimate the acute toxicity of chemicals on fish without using live animals. The correlation of in vitro cytotoxicity of metals with in vivo toxicity data was evaluated by comparing the 24 h NR50 results of R1 cells to 96 h LC50 data of different fish species. The rvalues (R1 cell line) were 0.64 for the relation between LC50, data of golden ide and bluegill sunfish, 0.58 for golden ide and rainbow trout in soft water, and 0.68 for golden ide and rainbow trout in hard water (Segner et al. 1994). In the present study, in vitro cytotoxicity of chromium with in vivo results was evaluated by comparing the 24 h MTT, NR, AB and CB data of seven Indian fish cell lines to 96 h data of three fish species (L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla). A good correlation was found between in vitro of seven fish cell lines compared with in vivo values of whole fish exposed to chromium for 24 h and 96 h respectively, with r=0.902 to 0.99. The results revealed that the four endpointsvalues were closely correlated to whole fish in vivo values and that the linear correlation b etween each in vitro parameter and the in vivo data were found to be highly significant. The results of in vitro assays using SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines of E. suratensis, C. catla and L. calcarifer were correlated with those obtained from in vivo assay using the same species of fish (L. calcarifer, E. suratensis and C. catla). Based on the results of the present study we recommend the use of these seven cell lines instead of living fish for toxicity assessment of metal salts and environmental contaminants. The present study showed that chromium induced genotoxicity in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines by comet assay. DNA damage was observed in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines exposed to chromium in a concentration dependent manner. The DNA damage at higher test concentrations in SISS, SISK, IEE, IEK, IEG, SICH and ICG cell lines could be due to the elevated levels of tail DNA in all cell lines compared to their controls cells. Induction of ROS under metallic stress could attack the DNA and damage its integrity. Our present results are similar to the previous reports (Iqbal Ahmad et al. 2006; Velma and Tchounwou 2010; 2013) DNA damage in gill and kidney of Anguilla anguilla L. exposed to chromium with or without pre-exposure to ÃŽÂ ²-naphthoflavone. In another study, medaka fin cell lines exposed to Cr (VI) to examine the genotoxic potentials, have observed DNA double strand breaks a

The Send-Off, by Wilfred Owen Essay -- English Literature:

The Send-Off, by Wilfred Owen, is an ironic and dark humored description of how the soldiers The Send-Off The Send-Off, by Wilfred Owen, is an ironic and dark humored description of how the soldiers we’re sent off to the battlefront, during World War I (keyword â€Å"The Send-Off†). In this poem, Owen conveys to us that the soldiers are being sent to their doom. From the very start we sense the soldiers’ lost fate. The soldiers go to the train, they are singing joyfully, as if they are being sent to a country picnic, but of course the narration is omniscient, we know what lies ahead of them, and so simultaneously the lanes are darkening around them. Secondly, the soldiers are surrounded by wreath and spray, a wreath and a spray are decorative flower arrangements usually plac...

Dinosaur Family Values: The Real Monsters in Jurassic Park :: essays papers

Dinosaur Family Values: The Real Monsters in Jurassic Park "The striking moral exhibited in this story, is the fatal consequence of that presumption which attempts to penetrate, beyond prescribed depths, into the mysteries of nature." Playbill for the first stage production of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein(1826) In a recent PBS special about the possibility of cloning dinosaurs a la Jurassic Park, Steven Speilberg reveals that he felt his film version of Michael Crichton's novel had been a success because "There's such a reality to it."Later, one of the scientists interviewed during the show admits that the idea of resurrecting dinosaurs is so imaginatively compelling because every paleontologist "wants to see the real thing."In fact, throughout the PBS documentary the criteria used to evaluate all possible schemes for cloning dinosaurs is always framed as a question: How "real" would the resulting dinosaurs be?The most scientifically credible method discussed would involve injecting dinosaur DNA into bird eggs with the hope that several generations later the birds would become "dinosaur like."Yet every one of the scientists interviewed evidences a clear lack of enthusiasm toward this method because, as one of the paleontologists puts it, "of course, it wouldn't be a real dinosaur."Meaning, we can only conclude, that only a dinosaur born of dinosaur parents can be a "real" dinosaur.The program ends with two quotes, one from the novel's author, Michael Crichton, and the other from actor Jeff Goldblum, who plays scientist Ian Malcolm in the film.First Crichton informs us that Jurassic Park is, above and beyond all else, a "cautionary tale about the hazards of genetic engineering"; and secondly, Goldblum ends the program by expanding on Crichton's warning and advising us that we are "better off marveling at the past rather than tampering with the future." The PBS program very tidily echoes and summarizes the central ideology of both the Jurassic Park films (Jurassic Park and The Lost World), which seems to me to be an obsession with the difference between natural and unnatural breeding practices, and how natural breeding results in and from traditional parenting, and unnatural breeding results in and from non-traditional and therefore unsound or inpure or, to put it as simply as possible, unnatural parenting. In other words, I beieve both of these films make basically the same argument: that there is a difference between natural and unnatural parents, and thus natural and unnatural families.The metaphor the films use as a cinematic stand-in for this quite conservative take on parenting is science, or rather natural vs unnatural science.

Golden Rule and Environmentalism :: Environment Ecology Ecological Essays

Golden Rule and Environmentalism Intelligence, humor, simplicity, common sense, lack of philosophical jargon, perspective, wit, answer to questions. In the style of a popular scientist, not a philosopher, Stephen Jay Gould announces his view of an appropriate environmental ethic following the simple, but forever elegant, golden rule. "If we all treated others as we wish to be treated ourselves, then decency and stability would have to prevail"(216), he states. In the spirit of Karen Warren, Gould's perspective on environmentalism 'feels right' to me, as I can connect with acts of respect and benevolence towards humans and can easily extend that feeling to the rest of the earth (especially on a personal level where I see the golden rule as the basis for my religious beliefs). However, upon closer examination, I find the suggestion to 'just follow the golden rule' as an environmental ethic problematic when examined in a practical, non-idealized light. Harkening back to the problems encountered in previous discussions of biocentric and ecocentric ethics, I am troubled by the potential outcomes of an environmental ethic such as this. In searching for a practical example with which to apply the golden rule ethic, let's examine Martin Kreiger's example of what to do in the case of Niagara Falls. Kreiger discusses three options for managing the Falls which were devised by the International Joint Commission Fallscape committee: 1) converting the falls into a monument, i.e. spending money and resources to keep the falls the way they are now; 2) making the falls an event, i.e. allowing the falls to continue to evolve, monitoring for rockfalls, and 'selling' their occurrence to the public to watch; 3) treating the falls as a show, i.e. giving a director complete power and discretion over the amount of water flowing at a given time, the size of the pool, and the amount of debris, along with lights and music, of course. Where would the golden rule ethic lead us in deciding the appropriate action for Niagara Falls? The first question in trying to apply this ethic is, who determines how "we" would want to be treated so that it can be determined how Niagara Falls would want to be treated? Should 'the public', as Kreiger thinks, have the say in what happens to Niagara, and therefore, decide its fate? I don't think that the public is in an appropriate position to decide the fate of this, or many other, environmental entities.

REMEDIAL WRITING PROGRAMME FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS

The intent of this survey programme is to find if pupils from the simple degree of Hin Hua High School ( Chinese Independent School ) improved in their ability to compose in English after holding studied specifically developed course of study. The 7-hour remedial programme is to be conducted one time the academic section releases the concluding appraisal classs. Fifteen pupils with the lowest mark were selected utilizing the standard method to undergo the remedial programme. the importance of all six major facets of composing measured in the English Test which comprises chiefly punctuation, grammar and use, sentence construction, scheme, organisation, and manner. It is believed by go toing the remedial programme selected pupils would be able to demo the ability to do and joint judgements by taking place on an issue or job. Besides prolonging a place by concentrating on the subject throughout the authorship. They are alson expected to develop a place by showing support or grounds utilizing specific inside informations and do illations based on support or grounds. Most significantly, they should be able to form and present thoughts in a logical manner by logically grouping and sequencing thoughts. Hence communicate clearly by utilizing linguistic communication efficaciously and by detecting the conventions of standard written EnglishIntroductionAs a linguistic communication instructor, I frequently select composing undertakings from linguistic communication text editions to assist pupils better their authorship ability. Behaviorists, communicative, cognitive, and discourse theories could act upon composing attacks in linguistic communication text editions. Each theoretical model has provided us with a better apprehension of the multiple dimensions and intents of learning composing. A reappraisal of the developments in composing teaching method leads us to reason that we could learn composing as a agency to better lingual, rhetorical and communicative competency or as a find and cognitive procedure. The composing undertakings that we select from linguistic communication text editions and assign to pupils could reflect one or some of these pedagogical intents. As instructors, we need to oppugn and understand the pedagogical premises of text edition composing undertakings so that we can choose undertakings that will assist our pupils become confident authors and independent minds. Primary pupils come ining the secondary school degree ( high School ) are challenged non merely to larn new content in the subjects but besides to pass on this. A important figure of pupils will non hold equal academic literacy degrees to be able to make this successfully ( Jones and Bonanno, 1995 ( 1 ) . Atlhough traditionally pupils were expected to develop academic literacy accomplishments without any expressed instruction of these accomplishments, schools now recognize the progressively diverse backgrounds of their pupil populations and have put in topographic point mechanisms for assisting pupils develop their academic literacy. These have included the constitution of literacy and larning units every bit good as the demand for school course of study to turn to the instruction of composing accomplishments including communicating accomplishments. English Learning Centre of Hin Hua High School Klang, like other literacy and larning units, has been involved in a figure of collaborative undertakings with instructors involved in learning Junior One to incorporate the instruction of communicating accomplishments into the course of study ( Webb et al, 1995, Taylor and Drury, 1996 ) . These enterprises have resulted in the development of new learning stuffs and attacks every bit good as new patterns of appraisal and feedback. However, as capable country course of study are being adapted to computer-based signifiers of acquisition, it is besides necessary to see how the instruction of communicating accomplishments can be integrated into these plans or how the instruction of communicating accomplishments can be contextualized within the acquisition of capable country cognition. With the current demand for propheciuency in English Language great importance has been given to developing plans to transfuse good composing manners to the si mple scholars which aims to assist pupils go successful editors of their ain authorship.1.1 LITERATURE REVIEWWriting accomplishments have been identified as to better pupils ‘ thought. Moffett and a few others have developed cognitively sequenced course of study for simple and secondary authorship, college composing, when it is sequenced at all, tends to trust on structural or rhetorical agreements, which are neither consecutive nor cumulative. Progressions from word to condemn to paragraph to theme confuse quantitative with qualitative growing, while rhetorical sequences confront pupils with cognitive jobs of different but equal complexness. In short, from a cognitive position, most writing direction in higher instruction is consistent with that in secondary instruction: what Stephen Judy described as â€Å" Advanced Hodgepodge † in high school gives manner to â€Å" Arrogant Hodgepodge † in college. A big and turning organic structure of research, nevertheless, shows that cognitive development follows a hierarchal sequence of phases and suggests that a course of study can be consecutive organized to advance cognitive development. Bloom ‘s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives provides some indispensable connexions between the cognitive abilities we expect of college pupils and a course of study that can excite those abilities Bloom ‘s Taxonomy is one solution to the cognitive odds and ends of the authorship course of study. It allows us to sequence direction and assignments in ways that speak straight to pupils ‘ developmental demands. From least to most complex, For composing direction the taxonomy provides a flexible theoretical account of what happens cognitively in the acquisition procedure Bloom described a six phase sequence: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. ( See Figure 1 )Figure 1.0 The flow chart of Bloom ‘s TaxonomyAt each new degree, thought procedures construct on and embrace old degrees. Implicit in this construction is the premise of an go uping graduated table of trouble and fullness. Thinking at the comprehension degree is more demanding than at the cognition degree ; cognitive jobs necessitating synthesis or rating encompass all the preceding degrees. A reappraisal of Bloom ‘s definitions for each systematic degree suggests what such a cognitively-based authorship class might imply. Although the focal point of each degree is cognitive, rhetorical issues of audience and intent are every bit appropriate and can be specified for any assignment. Most of all, the taxonomy allows us to contemplate the value and feasibleness of a cognition-based course of study in composing. Such a course of study would reflect the hierarchal dealingss of the assorted idea procedures and would assist to command for cognitive complexness in authorship and believing about falsifying natural discourse. In this signifier, composing or writing-intensive classs would consistently develop pupils ‘ thought accomplishments instead than go forthing them to opportunity or, worse, blunting the author ‘s still-developing ability to research and show thoughts. In short, a cognition-based course of study ensures that pupils take part to the full in utilizing composing as a manner of acquisition.2.0 INTENDED PURPOSEThe remedial programme is targeted for the simple scholars who are in the procedure of upgrading their authorship accomplishments to the pre -intermediate degree. A sum of 15 pupils are selected from the age group of 13 old ages old base d on the concluding semester scrutiny consequences. The scrutiny fundamentally structured in conformity to the text edition presently used in the school course of study, New Opportunities ( Pearson Longman-Cambridge ) . Basically the ( Stiggins to foreground achievement differences between and among pupils to bring forth a, 1994 ) . School systems might desire to sort pupils in this manner so that they can be heighten their competence degree even further. The major ground for utilizing a norm-referenced trial ( NRT ) is to sort pupils. NRTs are designed on reliable rank order of pupils across a continuum of accomplishment from high winners to low winners be decently placed in remedial or talented plans. These types of trials are besides used to assist instructors choice pupils for different ability degree reading or mathematics instructional groups. As the selected pupils fall under the below mean group in Paper 1 ( Writing Assessment ) whereby there are two parts that the had to fi nish here: Section A Notes Expansion and SECTION B Continuous Writing ( Choose one subject out of five given ) From the academic analysis it was found that bulk pupils failed in Section B where it consists of 25 % of the entire Markss of 40 % of the Writing paper. Thus they are required to go to a 7 hr remedial programme to better their authorship accomplishments by at least 85 % . FINAL Semester: Paper 1 RESULTS ( 40 % ) Name Class SECTION ( 15 % ) Section B ( 25 % ) 1 LIM WAI MENG ELEMENTARY 8 8 2 CAROLINE TAN ELEMENTARY 7 7 3 CHONG YOKE LAN ELEMENTARY 9 6 4 LIM CHEN PHANG ELEMENTARY 8 6 5 LEE AI VIN ELEMENTARY 8 7 6 SOO HUI YING ELEMENTARY 5 5 7 TAN KUI ROU ELEMENTARY 6 8 8. TEE WAN RU ELEMENTARY 5 9 9 NG JIA JI ELEMENTARY 9 7 10 LIM SHAO YI ELEMENTARY 9 4 11 KELVIN LAI ELEMENTARY 6 8 12 TAN MAY LI ELEMENTARY 8 8 13 TOO MEI LING ELEMENTARY 5 5 14 LIM TAI YONG ELEMENTARY 6 9 15 TEO JOYCELYN ELEMENTARY 7 63.0 PURPOSE OF REMEDIAL WRITING PROGRAMMEThe grounds for the remedial plan to be initiated is to break the scholars in their authorship accomplishments and beef up it so that they have all capablenesss to be promoted to the following degree but due to certain infinitesimal factors they fail to adhere to the criterions of the pre-intermediate degree. Therefore these pupils are carefully selected utilizing the standard method to undergo the 7 hr remedial programme. In order to bore and actuate these pupils in the remedial programme an enriching lesson program is formulated to make a positive result at the terminal of the the 7 hr remedial programme. The intents for stressing authorship accomplishments are to bring forth who can grok instruction and acquisition in a positive mental properties. There is a broad organic structure of research proposing that measuring pupils ‘ written public presentation is a valuable project. Not merely is an teacher able to assist a pupil ‘s advancement, but besides the teacher can ease the acquisition procedure and the acquisition results by being cognizant of pupil public presentation throughout the academic session. Undeniably, 3R accomplishments are of import and necessary in day-to-day life. They are besides needed to back up the development of a knowledge-based economic system. Acknowledging these demands, the school has initiated and implemented programmes to place pupils who have non mastered the 3Rs. These programmes are designed to specifically turn to and get the better of the inability of pupils to get the hang the 3Rs. This is in line with the essentialism which instills pupils with academic cognition and character development. Among the programmes that have been implemented in schools are the Early InterA ­vention Reading and Writing Class, Basic Skills for Reading, Writing and Counting Programme and the Literacy and Numeracy Programme at Level One.3.1 Sub-skills of WritingBesides boring and enriching the remedial scholars with the nucleus authorship accomplishments, there are besides exposed to the importance of sub-skills in their acquisition such as: I Manipulating the book of the linguistic communication: script, spelling and punctuation. II Expressing grammatical [ syntactic and morphological ] relationships at the sentence degree III Expressing information or cognition in authorship: explicitly implicitly IV Enrichment of VocabularyPart B4.0 Aims of the 7-hour remedial programmeThe chief purpose in presenting and implementing the remedial programme peculiarly in the facet of composing accomplishments is to chiefly: to develop competences in composing accomplishments among scholars to travel from a teacher-centered didactic theoretical account to a student-centered constructivist theoretical account to get the ability to compose in a more clear, concise and acceptable mode5.0 Instructional Design: Using the ADDIE Model to Construct Writing Competency Among Remedial Learners5.1 ModelThe generic term for the five-phase instructional design theoretical account dwelling of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation.A Each measure has an result that feeds into the following measure in the sequence.A There are likely over 100+ different fluctuations of the generic ADDIE theoretical account. Instructional design purpose for a scholar -centered instead than a traditional teacher-centered attack to direction, so that effectual acquisition can take topographic point. This means that every constituent of the direction is governed by the acquisition results, which have been determined after a thorough analysis of the scholars ‘ demands. This phases sometimes overlap and can be interrelated ; nevertheless they provide a dynamic, flexible guideline for developing effectual and efficient direction.5.2 ADDIE ‘S TheoryThe ADDIE direction theoretical account for this desin is outlined by Smith and Ragan ( 1995 ) in their book entitiled Instructional design. The focal point is n 5 points Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation. From this theory the analysis has proved that there was a demand to carry on remedial programme for the simple low scorers where an opportunty was given to larn and develop basic essay composing accomplishments.6.0 Remedial Education ProgrammeIn Malaysia, the importance of remedial instruction gained attending in the sixtiess. Consequences of a pilot undertaking in nine schools between 1967 and 1970 showed a demand for remedial instruction, particularly for students in rural countries. This paved the manner for remedial instruction programmes in primary schools. The innova tors in the field attended a biennial intensive class on remedial instruction in the United Kingdom. Subsequently, a national series of seminars and workshops on remedial instruction were organized. With the exclusion of little schools or under-enrolled schools, every school is allocated one remedial instruction instructor. At the school degree, a Remedial Education Committee is formed, consisting the schoolmaster, remedial instruction instructor, category instructor, capable instructor, resource Centre coordinator, and other instructors as members. The debut of a new course of study for primary schools in 1983 implied a return to the rudimentss in instruction. The ultimate end was to guarantee that no student is illiterate by the twelvemonth 2000. The execution of the remedial instruction programme for kids in Primary 1-3 is to guarantee that they master the 3Rs. Childs who have been recommended for remedial instruction are required to go to remedial categories. As of 1999, 54,000 primary school kids have undergone the intercession programme. In add-on to bettering and heightening instructor development, the Malayan authorities besides works towards bettering the course of study at school to run into the altering demands of the economic system. During the Fourth Malaysia Plan, the primary school course of study was revised with the purpose of supplying and set uping a steadfast instruction in reading, authorship, and arithmetic. This led to the development of a new course of study stressing the 3Rs. Surveies looking at the returns to instruction in Malaysia have found positive consequences in those who have had some signifier of formal instruction, thereby supplying support to the authorities guidelines on the primary course of study which emphasizes the acquisition of basic skills.Education in Malaysia, altering really quickly reacting to the emerging focal point of womb-to-tomb acquisition ; the turning accent on larning ; as opposed to making and the development of the new bringing systems6.1 The Educational, Philosoph ical and Psychological foundationElementary instruction shall take to develop the religious, moral, mental and physical capablenesss of the kid, supply him with experiences in the democratic manner of life, and instill thoughts and attitude necessary for enlightened, loyal, unsloped and utile citizenship. To accomplish these aims, simple instruction course of study shall supply for the: ingraining of religious and civic values and the development of a good citizen based on an staying religion in God and echt love of state ; preparation of the immature citizen in his rights, responsibilities and duties in a democratic society for active engagement, in a progressive and productive place and community life ; development of basic understanding about Malayan civilization, the desirable tradition and virtuousnesss of our people as indispensable necessities in achieving national consciousness and solidarity ; instruction of basic wellness cognition and the formation of desirable wellness wonts and patterns ; development of functional literacy in English as basic tools for farther acquisition ; and acquisition of cardinal cognition, attitudes, wonts, and accomplishments in scientific discipline, civics, civilization, history, geographics, mathematics, humanistic disciplines, and place economic sciences and support instruction and their intelligent application in appropriate life state of affairss. The Elementary Basic Education Curriculum focuses on the tool larning countries for an equal development of competences for larning how to larn. A The end of Instructional design is to back up the cognitive procedures that result in acquisition ( McGriff ) . The expected result of instructional design is to supply cognition and accomplishments to people. The three major larning theories are Constructivism, Behaviorism, and Cognitive. Instructional Design is based on constructivist rules. Instructional design is associated with instructional systems development ( Leshin et al, 1992 ) . An Instructional System is the â€Å" agreement of resources and processs to advance acquisition † ( Berger and Kam ) .6.2 Programme Design: ADDIE ModelADDIE is a all-purpose theoretical account, which can be used to make instructional merchandises and plan design. ADDIE is the acronym for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate and summarizes the five stairss in the Instructional Design procedure. The instructional interior decorator makes determinations critical to guaranting the effectivity of the educational experience in each stage of the procedure. In conformity with the procedure betterment theoretical account, the five stages are a â€Å" cringle, † with the betterment of larning results as the end. Dick and Carey and Kemp ( Kemp, et.al, 1998 ) expanded the ADDIE Model into nine elements. The Dick and Carey Model uses a Reductionist attack in interrupting direction down into smaller sections aiming bomber accomplishments. The scholar is required to maestro of bomber accomplishments, which are aggregated to accomplish overall accomplishment command and learned behaviour. It provides a systematic attack to curriculum and plan design. Teaching is basically a philosophical enterprise and hence educational activity can be conceived within the context of a doctrine or worldview. The curricukum refelects the art and trade of learning. Educational engineering can supply diverseness of believing sing course of study and direction which would be curriculum theorizing.6.2.1 AnalysisBasically the nature of the pupils whom the remedial programme to be conducted are pupils who learn English Language as a 2nd linguistic communication. They are originally from Chinese talking households with a minimal exposure to English Language. Due to the outlook of the school and the educational demands in adhering English as one of the nucleus topics in school these pupils are required to hold in deepness cognition and accomplishment in it. All of them have been educated in the Chinese primary school instruction system. Based on the concluding semester scrutiny consequences 15 pupils are selected to undergo remedial programme as they fall in the boundary line line instances.The pupils get hapless composing accomplishments, while being able to build sentences reasonably good, they seem to hold great trouble in forming and developing their thoughts into the signifier of an essay that has an debut, organic structure and decision. In order to advance these pupils to the following degree that is the pre-intermediate stage from their beginning simple degree the English Language Department found it critical for them to go to a 7-hour remedial programme in order to happen solution to this state of affairs. All of them need to foster develop their authorship accomplishments in term of coherence and coherency ; clip and pattern.6.2.2 DesignThe chief design end for our programme would be on the cognitive schemes of being able to develop an thought for composing since all of them com e from a really similar background and have basic sentence composing accomplishments. Besides the development of linguistic communication in the mechanics of sentence building such as sentence structure, grammar, construction, etc given precedence. R.Gagne ( 1965 ) divided larning into 5 classs: Verbal or declaratory cognition, rational accomplishments, cognitive schemes, attitudes and psychomotor accomplishments. The acquisition ends are besides in connexion to these classs to seek to set educational value behind our ends. At the same clip the end besides reflects competencies lineations by Benjamin Bloom ( Bloom,1956 ) . These include: Knowledge, Conprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis an Evaluation. These give our ends cogency whereby competences are incorporated in conveying about concrete undertaking for scholars that we assign in order to accomplish their ends. Hence in the rating stage, we can utilize this facet to happen out the cogency and the achievement of the scholars in implementing the programme. Learning Goals and Type of Learning Aim Standard GAGNE ‘S DOMAIN BLOOM ‘S TAXANOMY Learners will place an essay subject and 3 sub-topics Standards established by Hin Hua High School, English Language Department Cognitive schemes Synthesis Learners will be able to compose a 3 paragraph essay with an debut, 2 bomber subjects to include their sentiments, thoughts and decision Standards established by Hin Hua High School, English Language Department Declaration Cognition Intellectual Skills Synthesis Evaluation Application Learners will be able to utilize the library and Handouts to research printed information on their subjects Standards established by Hin Hua High School, English Language Department Procedural cognition ( declaration cognition ) Cognition Learners will be able to utilize proper mechanics of grammar sentence structure Standards established by Hin Hua High School, English Language Department Intellectual Skills Application Learners will be able to show their subjects in category Standards established by Hin Hua High School, English Language Department Declaration cognition Comprehension6.2.3 DevelopmentIn order to set up a accessible remedial programme for the simple scholars, we English instructors have developed a remedial programme which will set about a 7 hr larning procedure. The instructors from the same degree have brainstormed and come up with a class content for the 7-hour instruction and larning programme. The instructors from the same instruction degree are the best individual to make the lesson as they deal with the same competence degree of pupils all the clip and are considered experts in their country. Besides this, they will be able to do he printed and computing machine stuffs and added measure of acquiring the right content for the degree. On top of that since they have already been learning in the same range so they will be doubtless familiar in the procedure of instruction and steering the scholars in order to do the remedial programme a success.6.2.3. ( 1 ) ProcedureThe remedial programme would be in the English medium since the chief aim is to better composing accomplishments among simple scholars. The programme consists of 6 regular Sessionss and followed by a reappraisal and a trial twenty-four hours. Each hr is scheduled to be conducted for 60 proceedingss6.2.4 ExecutionFurther to the development to the development the instructors would be equipped with integral class content for he programme. The faculty would be prepared in balance with the clip frame allotted for the programme. Any instructor who is selected for this undertaking should be ready to set about the instruction procedure based on the strategy that has been prepared. Al cubic decimeter 15 pupils will be instructed to go to the programme for 7 hours. These are the assorted facet of execution emphasized in the learning procedure:6.2.5 EvaluationThe rating stage consists of two parts: formative and summational. Formative rating is present in each phase of the ADDIE procedure. Summational rating consists of trials designed for sphere specific criterion-related referenced points and supplying chances for feedback from the users. Chiefly the rating is done in two parts. The first stage will be the rating of pupil work based on the aims in the â€Å" Learning ends and type of larning † listed above. Students will be rated by their instructor based on the A, B, C, F standards set by the English Department. An Angstrom is first-class work, B is mean, and C will intend pupil demands betterment. An F would intend that pupil failed the composing appraisal with below 60 % of grade. Students will be evaluated at each phase of the class. The section will utilize this rating in order to happen out how they might necessitate to modify the programme in the hereafter. A summational rating will be conducted as outlined by Smith and Ragan ( 1999, p.352 ) . Those writers explain that in order to measure the effectivity, entreaty, and efficiency of direction, a aggregation, analysis and sum-up of informations on pupils ia indispensable. In our designed programme an test is built to entree pupils of their command on the abilities taught during the programme.Students are to demo their capablenesss in their apprehension and cognition taught to them by finishing the set of prep targeted to them. Students will be graded on from 1 to 5 for their abilities in each of the undermentioned subdivisions: Student name Student able to take a subject n sub-topics Student able to utilize press releases information Student able to finish the essay Score dated from 1 to 5 1: hapless 2: Able to understand the authorship construct with some counsel 3: Able to finish the undertaking with aid and support 4: Able to understand the construct and finish the undertaking separately A pre-test and post-test can mensurate how good learners achieved the larning aims. However, it normally takes more clip and attempt to mensurate things such as whether the scholars will utilize their preparation. This rating stage can widen for months. Upon completion of the programme the pupils ‘ feedback will be collected to further estimate the success of the programme. Questions are besides answered on a graduated table of 1 to 5. 1 is low and 5 is high. The standard inquiries constructed are as below: Were you satisfied with the content of this class? Were you able to understand the instructor ‘s account? Were you able to set into pattern elements that you learnt? Did you fond the class interesting? On a graduated table of 1 to 5, what is your general feeling about the class?Part C7.0 REVIEWER ‘S COMMENTSBelow is the sum-up of the feedback received from two of the Senior Teachers from the English Language Department of Hin Hua High School sing the 7hour remedial programme on composing accomplishments. Reviewer 1: Mdm Annaletchumy Reviewer 2: Ms Sastina The strengths and failings of the freshly developed Remedial Programme for Elementary Students Strengths 1. Learning by actively take parting in group treatment 2. Encouraging pupils to build their ain thoughts and cognition of the subject 3. Student-centered instead than teacher or subject-centered 4. Teaching assistance contributed to pupil ‘s visual image on the subject given 5. Suitable to student ‘s development degree 6. Group work enables pupils to self – express, to be self-assured and self- consciousness 7. Promote teacher to develop pupil ‘s originative thought abilities 8. Stressing the construct of group work and peer rating where no pupil Is left behind 9. Promoting the co-operation among pupils and instructor positively 10. Enables pupil to hold a positive mentality in originative authorshipFailings1. Unsuitability of activities for crowded room 2. Lack of stuffs used as assistance for pre-writing undertaking 3. Lack of instructor ‘s rating on the first stage of composing 4. Certain undertaking may take more clip than the planned clip 5. Peer rating on composing inappropriate attack for simple scholars8.0 Summary of ReviewSummarized below are some of the achievements and challenges I personally went through in building the remedial programme:8.1 Strengths8.1.1 Improved pupils attitude and motive Students are mentally prepared to take part in the programme because pupils agree to a peculiar gait, work load, and larning environment from the beginning. 8.1.2 Making Learning Communities: Classs map as Teach communities both teacher and their pupils benefit – in both societal and academic countries – from working with each other over a full programme. 8.1.3 Extinguishing Stigma of Dependency: The construct group work and peer rating removed the stigma of being excessively dependent on the instructor Writing stuffs.8.2 Failings8.2.1 Students engagement Some scholars will non lend in due to the deficiency of involvement or proficiency 8.2.2 Stipulated Time The period allotted might non be sufficient for certain undertaking. Thus this will hold or sometimes disrupt the whole programme construction. 8.2.3 Truly in equal marker Some scholars will non adhere by the regulations set in equal marker when it comes to appraisal. Favoritisms and ego -centered will act upon the observation9.0 DecisionIt is expected that by go toing this theoretical account of English remedial direction it will be good to low English winners. Students will derive well in grammar and vocabulary and they will besides bit by bit better in their overall English competency. Based on the remarks from the referees it can be concluded that scholars will be efficaciously better their English authorship accomplishments through the prepared class faculty for the remedial programme. A well-designed class will decidedly give them encouragement and support to promote their English proficiency and be prepared for the following degree, pre=intermediate.10.0 PART D7 HOUR LESSON PLAN REMEDIAL PROGRAMME – ENGLISH LANGUAGEPurposes: by the terminal of my lesson, pupils will be able to compose a full-length essay on Endangered Species and better their attack of composing schemes. Auxiliary purpose: pupils will be able to better their usage of associating words in controlled and less controlled authorship activities on Endangered SpeciessEvidence: ( How will I know I have achieved the purpose? )Students will be able to finish effect and short authorship scheme undertakings: Quizzes, Test Students will be able to finish their group presentation and compose a full length essay on Endangered Species.Materials:Course Content prepared by Elementary instructors from the English Department of Hin Hua High School, Klang. 1. New Opportunities Students Book ( Module 7- Endangered Species ) 2. Multimedia devices 3. Cultural consciousness Context: Endangered SpeciessAnticipated ProblemsSolutions1.Students have no cognition of Endangered Species Promote them to look at the exposure 2.Students are non able to do connexion with the subject Promote them to work in groups 3.Students find composing within the clip frame really demanding Set and maintain rigorous clip bounds 4. Students may non understand the right vocabulary use for the undertaking Pre-teach the vocabulary before pupils do the undertakings 5. Students may non be able to compose much about Endangered Speciess Get them to work in groups and portion thoughts.Premises1. Some pupils have cognition of Endangered Species and hold read about them 2. Students have cognition of the extinction of animate beings. 3. Some pupils have had exposure through the media and cyberspace on the Endangered Species development. 4. Students have sufficient vocabulary to get down the authorship. 5. Students understand and use some linking words and sequence connections taught. Timing ( mins ) Phase name Procedure Purpose Interaction 30 Ice- Breaker Teacher sticks up assorted sorts of carnal images on the whiteboard and asks pupils to do a conjectures on animate beings of endangered species. T negotiations about the images and T proctors activity. T gets feedback on activity and writes a few conjectures on WB To warm up the category and to set up a game- like ambiance To research around the category, to be introduced to the subject of endangered species, bit by bit To interchange positions for their picks with grounds given T -S T – Second S – Second T – Second S – Second 30 Pre-writing ( a ) After feedback, T gives a presentation on several species of endangered animate beings and their characters and populating wonts utilizing PPT ( Giant Pandas, North China Tiger, African Elephant, Dolphin and Gorillas ) T prepares a cartridge holder of picture â€Å" ICE AGE † in order to steer the pupils to discourse on the grounds of people killing animate beings To set up context and to utilize scholar ‘s conventional cognition of the animate beings on the whole to unite it with the lesson ‘s subject T – Second T – Second 30 Pre-writing ( B ) I. After feedback, T gives each group a set of images of animate beings and asks them to place the endangered species. two. After feedback, T advises scholars to look at it complete and this clip, to happen out why are these animate beings in danger and the grounds for it. To advance group work to place the images, to work out context in groups and to trip bottom-up reading accomplishments To work out in context intent and audience, in groups and trip top-down reading accomplishments S – Second T – Second S – Second T – Second 30 Pre- Teaching Vocabulary After feedback, T holds the attending of Ss to the unknown word in the context ; T elicits their significance in context, utilizing mini- lexicon from the New Opportunities Students Book, To pre-teach unknown vocabulary, to work out its significance in context, utilizing the dictionary and to pattern emphasis, modulation and beat T – Second T – Second S – Second 30 Pre – Writing ( degree Celsius ) After feedback, T assigns two paragraphs for each group to work on, and hands out a wh-comprehension undertaking to finish for their paragraphs Ss are to come to the w/b and put the strips of paper one under the other To pattern reading accomplishments, such as scanning and reading for item To reorder the strips of paper on the w/b, to show it as a whole, and to utilize it as a springboard for the brainstorming session S -S T – Second S – Second 30 Brainstorming: T asks Ss to believe why some animate beings are endangered and ways of assisting the endangered animate beings T prepares a cartridge holder of picture â€Å" ICE AGE † in order to steer the pupils to discourse on the grounds of people killing animate beings During the activity, T goes about, proctors and provides aid where necessary. To trip their conventional cognition of the endangered animate beings, to unite their scheme to culturally targeted subjects All thoughts are to be brainstorm in their group for bring forthing bill of exchanges S – Second T – Second S – Second 60 While – Writing ( Rough Draft ) Peer rating Thymine informs them that they will hold to compose their ain thoughts down, in order they like on a piece of paper, -one group member will compose the bill of exchange and the others will give aid and counsel. During the activity, T goes around proctors and provides aid Ss exchange documents with the other squad and give remarks on each other ‘s work To compose a unsmooth bill of exchange, to choose thoughts and to set up a point of view To advance coaction amongst group members, to peer-evaluate, to offer support and counsel with written work S – Second S – Second 60 While – Writing ( First Draft ) Peer rating T advises S to rewrite the essay every bit good as select which thoughts will travel to each paragraph, in their squads T tells them that one of them will compose and the others will assist out After composing, T tells Ss to trade documents and give them to the other group to remarks To set up information, to construction the text ( White and Arndt 1991 ) To work collaboratively to accomplish an purpose To advance co-operation to accomplish a end, to peer evaluate, to react to the first bill of exchange and to give feedback on the content ( Raimes cited in Gaith 2002 ) T – Second T – Second S -S T – Second S -S 60 While – Writing ( Second Draft ) Editing T advises S to rewrite the bill of exchanges, much better, now, they ‘ve got the feedback from other groups After composing, T tells Ss to read out what they ‘ve written To better the accomplishment of authorship ( Charles 1990 ) To redact, to proof-read content S – Second T – Second 60 Post – Writing ( Finished Draft ) T advises Ss to get down their single authorship on the foolscap paper provided T gives Ss appraisal Markss based the authorship produced To show their pieces of complete authorship S – Second T – Second